暴露于具有潜在 HIV 感染风险的非职业性源患者后,应考虑暴露后预防治疗 (PEP)。权衡 PEP 的获益与可能出现的不良反应和毒性很重要。必须尽快开始 PEP,理想情况是在 2 小时内,[4]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP for occupational exposure to HIV guideline. May 2018 [internet publication].http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/occupational/#[5]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP for non-occupational exposure to HIV guideline. May 2018 [internet publication].http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/non-occupational/#tab_0 最好是在暴露后 24 小时内。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf 如果暴露与就诊间隔超过 72 小时,不推荐进行 PEP。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf[6]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV. May 2018 [internet publication].https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/38856 通常可以在当地性健康门诊或医院急诊室接受 PEP。
暴露的类型和时间
评估患者是否适合 PEP 的第一步是识别暴露类型和确定源患者的 HIV 状态。具有感染 HIV 潜在风险的非职业性暴露包括阴道、直肠、口腔、眼睛或其他黏膜或不完整的皮肤与血液、精液、阴道分泌物、直肠分泌物、乳汁或其他任何明显被血液污染的体液接触,并且已知源患者被 HIV 感染或源患者感染 HIV 的风险较高或来自高流行地区。然后应当确定是否使用了安全套或安全套是否有破裂或脱落。如果正确使用完好的安全套,不需要 PEP。关于暴露情况需要确定的更多细节包括,是否有射精发生以及是否有创伤和明显的出血。[40]Figueroa JP, Brathwaite A, Morris J, et al. Rising HIV-1 prevalence among sexually transmitted disease clinic attenders in Jamaica: traumatic sex and genital ulcers as risk factors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1994;7:310-316.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8106971?tool=bestpractice.com一般认为,暴露于未明显被血液污染的尿液、鼻腔分泌物、唾液、汗液或泪液,感染 HIV 的风险很低,可忽略不计。
如果暴露为职业性,则应当确定受损伤类型。将职业暴露定义为:
经皮损伤(例如针头刺伤或锐器割伤)。深部损伤、可见的血液或用于血管内的器械导致损伤,均可增加 HIV 传播的风险[7]Department of Health. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: guidance from the UK Chief Medical Officers' Expert Advisory Group on AIDS. September 2008. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_089997.pdf
接触黏膜或不完整的皮肤(例如皲裂、磨损或患皮炎的皮肤)。如果皮肤完整,没有传播 HIV 的风险。[7]Department of Health. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis: guidance from the UK Chief Medical Officers' Expert Advisory Group on AIDS. September 2008. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130107105354/http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_089997.pdf
与下列之一接触:
认为粪便、鼻腔分泌物、唾液、痰液、汗液、泪液、尿液和呕吐物可能不具有传染性,除非明显带血。
有证据提示,即使在高危人群中,例如持续使用毒品的男男性接触者 (MSM),PEP 也可能有效,但高危行为经常在一个疗程的 PEP 后继续存在。[41]Landovitz RJ, Fletcher JB, Inzhakova G, et al. A novel combination HIV prevention strategy: post-exposure prophylaxis with contingency management for substance abuse treatment among methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:320-328.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22680280?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Heuker J, Sonder GJ, Stolte I, et al. High HIV incidence among MSM prescribed postexposure prophylaxis, 2000-2009: indications for ongoing sexual risk behaviour. AIDS. 2012;26:505-512.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22156963?tool=bestpractice.com 因 PEP 就诊为降低风险提供了一个独特的机会,医务人员应当尽可能利用这个机会提供深度咨询,这也为讨论 HIV 暴露前预防治疗 (PrEP) 提供了机会。[43]Llewellyn C, Abraham C, Miners A, et al. Multicentre RCT and economic evaluation of a psychological intervention together with a leaflet to reduce risk behaviour amongst men who have sex with men (MSM) prescribed post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE): a protocol. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:70.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3362782/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22440090?tool=bestpractice.com 实际上,从 PEP 直接过渡到 PrEP 的策略可能对有可能继续发生 HIV 暴露事件的合适患者有益。[44]Jain S, Krakower DS, Mayer KH. The transition from postexposure prophylaxis to preexposure prophylaxis: an emerging opportunity for biobehavioral HIV prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60(suppl 3):S200-S204.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/suppl_3/S200.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25972505?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Grant RM, Smith DK. Integrating antiretroviral strategies for human immunodeficiency virus prevention: post- and pre-exposure prophylaxis and early treatment. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:ofv126.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4621406/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26512356?tool=bestpractice.com
如果早期开始 PEP,更有可能防止 HIV 传播。[30]Otten RA, Smith DK, Adams DR, et al. Efficacy of postexposure prophylaxis after intravaginal exposure of pig-tailed macaques to a human-derived retrovirus (human immunodeficiency virus type 2). J Virol. 2000;74:9771-9775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC112413/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11000253?tool=bestpractice.com 必须尽快开始 PEP,理想情况是在 2 小时内,[4]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP for occupational exposure to HIV guideline. May 2018 [internet publication].http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/occupational/#[5]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP for non-occupational exposure to HIV guideline. May 2018 [internet publication].http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/non-occupational/#tab_0 最好是在暴露后 24 小时内。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf 如果暴露与就诊间隔超过 72 小时,不推荐进行 PEP。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf[6]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV. May 2018 [internet publication].https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/38856 暴露后,患者应当尽快到当地性健康门诊或急诊室就诊。
源患者特征
应尽快积极明确源患者的 HIV 感染状态。如果已知源患者为 HIV 阳性,应当考虑:是否同时感染乙型肝炎或丙型肝炎或者存在其他性传播感染 (sexually transmitted infection, STI),是否可以检测到 HIV 病毒载量,以及每 mL 的病毒拷贝数目。如果源患者的 HIV 病毒载量检测不到,即使不采取 PEP,传播几率也很低。这一结论是根据下列数据推断而来:在血清学不一致的一对伴侣中,接受 HIV 感染治疗的伴侣能够将 HIV 传播给未感染伴侣的风险降低 96%;[46]Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:493-505.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1105243#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21767103?tool=bestpractice.com 一项研究跟踪了 HIV 阳性个体(异性恋和 MSM),这些患者接受抗逆转录病毒治疗 (ART),出现病毒抑制,他们与不采取 PEP 或 PrEP 的 HIV 阴性伴侣发生无安全套的性行为,总随访时间接近 900 对伴侣年,结果未发现一例 HIV 血清转换事件。[47]Rodger A, et al. HIV transmission risk through condomless sex if HIV+ partner on suppressive ART: PARTNER study. In: Program and abstracts of the 21st Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, March 3 to 6th, 2014, Boston, U.S., abstract 153LB. 如果源患者感染 HIV,在某些时间点已经接受 ART 治疗,应当记录源患者正在服用哪些抗逆转录病毒药物以及是否有已知的 HIV 病毒耐药,因为这对于选择药物很关键。
如果源患者最近的 HIV 检测为阴性,这或许可以令人放心,但是必须考虑到 HIV 的 3 个月窗口期,在这段时间内,近期感染者对其他人有传染性,但抗体检测仍为阴性。如果使用第 4 代联合 HIV 抗原/抗体检测,这一窗口期可以缩短至 4-6 周,因为在原发性感染较早期就可以检测到 p24 抗原。如果发现在 3 个月窗口期内源患者均为 HIV 阴性,并且没有新的风险,则可以终止 PEP。如果源患者在前 6 周内可能有新的 HIV 暴露,还应当通过 RNA PCR 检测 HIV 病毒载量,排除源患者的 HIV 感染。[4]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP for occupational exposure to HIV guideline. May 2018 [internet publication].http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/occupational/#[5]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. PEP for non-occupational exposure to HIV guideline. May 2018 [internet publication].http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/non-occupational/#tab_0 应当尽力确定源患者的 HIV 感染状态。如果已知源患者携带 HIV 但正在接受 ART 治疗,并且确认血浆病毒载量持续(>6 个月)检测不到(<200 拷贝/mL),则不需要 PEP。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf
如果源患者的 HIV 感染状态未知,则应当通过当地人群的患病率估计 HIV 的危险因素。可以在联合国 HIV/AIDS 项目网站上获取区域性患病率数据(这可能对非职业暴露可能特别有帮助)。2010 UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 较高的风险与注射毒品、男男性接触者 (MSM)、商业性行为和输注未经筛查的血液有关。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf[18]Donegan E, Stuart M, Niland JC, et al. Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:733-739.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2240875?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic (MAP) Network. The determinants of the HIV/AIDS epidemics in Europe. Geneva, Switzerland: Monitoring the AIDS Pandemic (MAP) Network in conjunction with the 12th World AIDS Conference; 1998.http://data.unaids.org/publications/IRC-pub03/map98_en.pdf
临床评估:医学和性
需要记录完整病史,评估患者的 HIV 风险以及确认正在服用哪些药物。抗逆转录病毒药物有多种药物相互作用。病史中的结核病 (tuberculosis, TB) 病史和癫痫病史尤其重要,其他重要的药物间相互作用包括与抗酸剂、多种维生素和非处方药 [例如圣约翰草 (St John’s wort)] 的药物相互作用。
服用含有铝或镁盐的抗酸剂可显著降低血浆拉替拉韦 (raltegravir) 和多替拉韦 (dolutegravir) 水平。服用拉替拉韦的患者不应同时或交错服用含铝和/或镁的抗酸剂,[49]Merck Frosst Canada Ltd. Isentress (raltegravir) prescribing information. January 2015. https://www.merck.com/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).https://www.merck.com/product/usa/pi_circulars/i/isentress/isentress_pi.pdf 且多替拉韦应在服用含有多价阳离子(例如,镁离子、铝离子、铁离子或钙离子)药物的 2 小时前或 6 小时后服用。[50]ViiV Healthcare ULC. Tivicay (dolutegravir) prescribing information. February 2014. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov (last accessed 25 May 2017).https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/204790s001lbl.pdf
有些药物,例如利福平和抗癫痫药,能够降低某些抗逆转录病毒药物的有效性。而某些抗逆转录病毒药物能够降低或增加其他药物的全身浓度,例如口服避孕药。[51]British national formulary 73. London, UK: British Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. BMJ group and RPS Publishing; 2017. 应当检查就诊者服用任何药物间的相互作用,据此选择 PEP 方案。非处方药,例如圣约翰草,也可能与抗逆转录病毒药物发生相互作用,应当询问当前药物使用史。用药史还应当包括药物过敏史。
对于因寻求 PEP 而就诊的人员,无论是存在性交暴露还是职业暴露,均应采集其性生活史,应告知其进行安全的性行为,直到 3-6 个月后确认其 HIV 感染状态。[6]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; US Department of Health and Human Services. Updated guidelines for antiretroviral postexposure prophylaxis after sexual, injection drug use, or other nonoccupational exposure to HIV. May 2018 [internet publication].https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/38856 英国性健康和 HIV 协会 (British Association for Sexual Health and HIV, BASHH) 指南推荐,在暴露后 8-12 周时进行随访 HIV 检测。[3]Fisher M, Briggs E, Cresswell F, et al. UK guideline for the use of post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV following sexual exposure (PEPSE). 2015. http://www.bashh.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.bashh.org/documents/PEPSE%202015%20guideline%20final_NICE.pdf
对于因非职业性 PEP 而就诊的患者,应当询问过去 3 个月内的既往性伴侣情况,评估正处于 HIV 窗口期的患者风险,因为如果患者已经被感染,则治疗与标准的 PEP 不同。当前的 STI(尤其是生殖器溃疡性疾病)会增加 HIV 传播的风险,应当询问这些疾病。[52]Corey L. Wald A, Celum CL, et al. The effects of herpes simplex virus-2 on HIV-1 acquisition and transmission: a review of two overlapping epidemics. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35:435-445.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15021308?tool=bestpractice.com
受到性侵的儿童和青少年,最好是在急诊室或能够获得适合年龄的资源的其他环境中进行诊治,以便解决与此类犯罪相关的多个医学、心理社会学和法律问题。可以将可能暴露于 HIV 后的 HIV PEP 看作医疗紧急情况,如果不能及时(在几小时内)获得父母或法定监护人的同意,可以开始 HIV PEP 治疗,同时在可能的情况下继续尝试获得父母的同意。[53]New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. HIV post-exposure prophylaxis for children beyond the perinatal period. June 2010. http://www.hivguidelines.org/ (last accessed 25 May 2017).http://www.hivguidelines.org/pep-for-hiv-prevention/
如果需要采取 PEP 时的检查
应当对所有需要采取 PEP 的患者进行下列检查:[9]Greenwald JL, Burstein GR, Pincus J, et al. A rapid review of rapid HIV antibody tests. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2006,8:125-131.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16524549?tool=bestpractice.com
如果是高风险患者,应进行基线第 4 代 HIV 抗体/抗原检测(通过血液酶联免疫吸附试验 [enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA] 或酶免疫分析法 [enzyme immunoassay, EIA]),还应考虑进行快速 HIV 检测:有可能存在假阳性结果,尤其是在患病率低的人群中。必须考虑到 6 周的窗口期。已经感染 HIV 的患者不应当接受 28 天的 PEP,而是应当转诊接受连续的 HIV 治疗。
肾功能和尿液分析或尿蛋白/肌酐比率:如果肾功能不全或存在显著的蛋白尿,则应避免使用富马酸替诺福韦酯 (tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, TDF)。其他抗逆转录病毒药物可能需要调整剂量。
肝酶:如果升高,应当更加怀疑慢性病毒性肝炎或梅毒,并且一旦开始 PEP,还应当更加频繁地监测。
乙型肝炎血清学检查:应当检查乙型肝炎表面抗原和核心抗体,以确定慢性感染,检查乙型肝炎表面抗体,以确定通过既往疫苗接种获得的免疫力。如果抗体为阴性,考虑疫苗接种,如果已知源患者患有乙型肝炎或属于乙型肝炎的高风险人群,加用乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白 (HBIG);如果慢性感染乙型肝炎,这会影响抗逆转录病毒药物的选择,因为许多对乙型肝炎有活性的药物,对 HIV 也有活性,必须在传染病专科医生的帮助下仔细选择。
丙型肝炎血清学检查:如果阳性,考虑转诊治疗。
梅毒血清学检查:如果阳性,采取治疗。
妊娠试验。
病毒载量检测:在接受 PEP 评估的患者中,不常规进行。如果怀疑急性 HIV 逆转录病毒综合征,可能可以进行。[54]Landovitz RJ, Currier JS. Clinical practice. Postexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1768-1775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19864675?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Mindel A, Tenant-Flowers M. ABC of AIDS: Natural history and management of early HIV infection. BMJ. 2001;322:1290-1293.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1120386/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11375235?tool=bestpractice.com