ADHD 常常影响许多方面的功能,包括学校表现、家庭关系、友谊、活动和自尊。心理教育为所有患者的一线干预措施。治疗应该全面且具有随时间而变化的灵活性,因为主要症状和必要支持会随着发育而改变。应根据每名患者的具体情况制定疗法,从而获得最大的效力、耐受性、依从性和可负担性。应通过定期随访对患者进行监测,检查目标症状、治疗结果和不良反应。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Ghuman JK, Arnold LE, Anthony BJ. Psychopharmacological and other treatments
in preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: current
evidence and practice. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008;18:413-447.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18844482?tool=bestpractice.com
此处提出的治疗方法源于各种医学共识,包括美国儿童和青少年精神病学会、美国儿科学会的共识以及近期的一份国际共识。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Wolraich M, Brown L, Brown RT, et al; Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2011;128:1007-1022.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/1007http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22003063?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Kutcher S, Aman M, Brooks SJ, et al. International consensus statement on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and disruptive behaviour disorders (DBDs): clinical implications and treatment practice suggestions. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;14:11-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14659983?tool=bestpractice.com兴奋剂药物为一线治疗药物,其次是托莫西汀,然后是α-2-肾上腺素能激动剂、三环抗抑郁剂 (TCA) 和安非他酮。行为治疗可用作辅助疗法。一项门诊研究表明,87% 的医师使用兴奋剂、6% 使用托莫西汀、5% 至 9% 使用其他疗法,包括胍法辛、可乐定和安非他酮。[74]Garfield CF, Dorsey ER, Zhu S, et al. Trends in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Ambulatory Diagnosis and Medical Treatment in the United States, 2000-2010. Acad Pediatr. 2012;12:110-116.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22326727?tool=bestpractice.com在美国儿科学会 2011 年 ADHD 指南发布之前的一段时期[70]Wolraich M, Brown L, Brown RT, et al; Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2011;128:1007-1022.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/5/1007http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22003063?tool=bestpractice.com,关于临床实践的全国样本显示,大多数 ADHD 儿童在接受药物治疗或行为治疗;只有不足三分之一的患者同时接受两者。[75]Visser SN, Bitsko RH, Danielson ML, et al. Treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children with special health care needs. J Pediatr. 2015;166:1423-1430.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25841538?tool=bestpractice.com多模式治疗最常用于重度 ADHD 患者以及有共病的患者。大约一半的学龄前儿童接受行为治疗,这是该年龄段儿童的推荐一线治疗。
兴奋剂药物
兴奋剂药物(基于哌醋甲酯和苯丙胺的药物)为一线药物。已经证明,与安慰剂相比,苯丙胺和哌甲酯可有效改善 ADHD 的核心症状,但与不良事件相关,例如睡眠问题和食欲下降。[76]Punja S, Shamseer L, Hartling L, et al. Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(2):CD009996.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009996.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26844979?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Storebø OJ, Ramstad E, Krogh HB, et al. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(11):CD009885.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26599576?tool=bestpractice.com [
]Can amphetamines improve symptoms in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?http://cochraneclinicalanswers.com/doi/10.1002/cca.1308/full显示答案 [
]What are the benefits and harms of methylphenidate in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?http://cochraneclinicalanswers.com/doi/10.1002/cca.1345/full显示答案
大多数患者(在 65% 至 75% 之间)对初始兴奋剂试验性治疗有反应。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com在 AD/HD 多模式治疗研究 (MTA)(为最大规模的比较兴奋剂和行为疗法治疗ADHD的疗效试验)中,治疗14 和 24 个月后,兴奋剂加定期随访的效果似乎优于行为疗法。[78]MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999:56:1073-1086.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205525http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10591283?tool=bestpractice.com[79]MTA Cooperative Group. National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD follow-up: 24-month outcomes of treatment strategies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2004;113:754-761.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15060224?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM, et al. 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:989-1002.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17667478?tool=bestpractice.com虽然最大的 MTA 数据提示,治疗36 个月时其优势不复存在,但人们仍在争论这种现象是否是研究设计引起,而并非是兴奋剂的疗效在本质上会随时间而消失。[78]MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999:56:1073-1086.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205525http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10591283?tool=bestpractice.com[79]MTA Cooperative Group. National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD follow-up: 24-month outcomes of treatment strategies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2004;113:754-761.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15060224?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM, et al. 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:989-1002.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17667478?tool=bestpractice.com兴奋剂的效果同样优于非兴奋剂药物。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com推荐使用长效制剂,因为它们有如下优点:可以每日给药一次(无需在上学时间重复给药);药效持续时间可长达 12 小时或更长(取决于药物递送系统);[81]Brams M, Moon E, Pucci M, et al. Duration of effect of oral long-acting stimulant medications for ADHD throughout the day. Curr Med Res Opin. 2010;26:1809-1825.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20491612?tool=bestpractice.com作用更为缓和,很少或不会在一天结束时出现症状反弹。调整至最佳剂量时,没有证据表明长效制剂会在儿童造成显著的睡眠问题。[82]Faraone SV, Glatt SJ, Bukstein OG, et al. Effects of once-daily oral and transdermal methylphenidate on sleep behavior of children with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2009;12:308-315.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18400982?tool=bestpractice.com最初应采用低剂量(市售的最小剂量),随后按周调整。快速调整剂量可以接受,但可能导致不良反应增加。兴奋剂敏感度的个体差异很大,因此体重仅仅是最终确定剂量的一个粗略参考因素。剂量应不断增加,直至所有症状消失或出现不可接受的不良反应。这常常意味着将剂量增加到批准的最大剂量。同种药物的不同制剂之间,在吸收、代谢和作用持续时间方面可能存在差异。哌醋甲酯的制剂包括溶液、缓释混悬剂、咀嚼片、速释和缓释片/胶囊以及经皮贴剂,具体剂型因国家而异。哌醋甲酯的 D 异构体右哌醋甲酯同样可供选择。制剂的多样性有助于开展个体化的治疗(例如,更换不同的给药系统或使用相对短效的制剂来补充长效制剂)。多数研究表明哌醋甲酯和苯丙胺制剂有同等效力和副作用特征,但由于作用机制及制剂方面的差异(例如不同的给药和吸收方式),患者可能对其中一种有反应而对另一种没有。一项针对 23 个临床试验的 meta 分析表明,苯丙胺制剂的效果可能比哌醋甲酯制剂稍好;但这一结果尚需在“头对头”临床试验中进一步确认。[83]Faraone SV, Buitelaar J. Comparing the efficacy of stimulants for ADHD in children and adolescents using meta-analysis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;19:353-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19763664?tool=bestpractice.com因此,大多数病例在第一选择无效时,先试用另一类兴奋剂,若仍然无效再改用二线药剂。
改变兴奋剂药物的类别
如果尝试了两种类别的兴奋剂,多达 85% 的患者会对治疗有反应。[84]Arnold LE. Methylphenidate vs. amphetamine: a comparative review. J Atten Disord. 2000;3:200-211.对于特定的患者,没有任何证据可以预测哪种类别的兴奋剂有效,可能需要进行多次试验。
在两种兴奋剂试验治疗失败和/或怀疑有精神障碍共病时,许多临床医生会考虑将患者转诊至专科医生(例如儿童和青少年精神科医生)处,如果存在智力障碍、癫痫发作或遗传问题,会考虑将患者转诊至神经科医生处。如果医生发现患者似乎存在自杀意念问题时,则转诊很重要,但是瑞典的一项以人群为基础的大型研究发现,在 ADHD 患者中,没有证据证明使用药物治疗 ADHD 与伴发自杀行为风险存在正相关性。[85]Chen Q, Sjölander A, Runeson B, et al. Drug treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and suicidal behaviour: register based study. BMJ. 2014;348:g3769.http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g3769http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24942388?tool=bestpractice.com甚至相反,研究结果提示 ADHD 治疗药物可能有对抗自杀行为的潜在保护作用,尤其是兴奋剂类药物。中国香港一项基于人群的病例系列研究发现,接受哌甲酯给药的 ADHD 患者(年龄在 6 至 25 岁之间),企图自杀的风险在治疗开始前 90 天内最高,这说明使用哌甲酯与自杀之间的任何关联都不是因果关联。[86]Man KK, Coghill D, Chan EW, et al. Association of risk of suicide attempts with methylphenidate treatment. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Jul 26 [Epub ahead of print].http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28746699?tool=bestpractice.com然而,关于此关联的研究正在进行中,因此应当谨慎。
托莫西汀
托莫西汀是一种去甲肾上腺素再摄取抑制剂,也是用于治疗注意缺陷多动障碍的非兴奋剂药物。与兴奋剂不同,托莫西汀的滥用可能性很低;对于有潜在药物误用或滥用问题的患者和家庭,可能是首选药物。托莫西汀通常为三线治疗,但如果出现抽动性运动障碍、焦虑障碍或物质滥用等共病,也可用作二线或一线治疗。[87]Cheng JY, Chen RY, Ko JS, et al. Efficacy and safety of atomoxetine for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2007;194:197-209.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17572882?tool=bestpractice.com
研究证明,在减少 ADHD 症状方面,托莫西汀的疗效优于安慰剂。[88]Kratochvil CJ, Heiligenstein JH, Dittmann R, et al. Atomoxetine and methylphenidate treatment in children with ADHD: a prospective, randomized, open-label trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41:776-784.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12108801?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Michelson D, Faries D, Wernicke J, et al. Atomoxetine in the treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD: a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-response study. Pediatrics. 2001;108:E83.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/108/5/e83.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11694667?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Buitelaar J, Michelson D, Danckaerts M, et al. A randomized, double-blind study of continuation treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder after 1 year. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61:694-699.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16893523?tool=bestpractice.com[91]Spencer T, Heiligenstein JH, Biederman J, et al. Results from 2 proof-of-concept, placebo-controlled studies of atomoxetine in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63:1140-1147.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12523874?tool=bestpractice.com头对头试验表明,在改善 ADHD 症状方面,托莫西汀不劣于哌醋甲酯。[92]Wang Y, Zheng Y, Du Y, et al. Atomoxetine versus
methylphenidate in paediatric outpatients with attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder: a randomized, double-blind comparison trial. Aust N Z J Psychiatry.
2007;41:222-230.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17464703?tool=bestpractice.com症状严重性:高质量证据表明,在改善儿童及青少年的 ADHD 症状方面,托莫西汀并不亚于速释型哌醋甲酯。[92]Wang Y, Zheng Y, Du Y, et al. Atomoxetine versus
methylphenidate in paediatric outpatients with attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder: a randomized, double-blind comparison trial. Aust N Z J Psychiatry.
2007;41:222-230.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17464703?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。但长效哌醋甲酯制剂的反应率高于托莫西汀。[93]Newcorn JH, Kratochvil CJ, Allen AJ, et al. Atomoxetine and osmotically
released methylphenidate for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder: acute comparison and differential response. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165:721-730.http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05091676http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18281409?tool=bestpractice.com对治疗的反应:高质量证据表明,采用渗透释放型口服哌醋甲酯进行治疗时,反应率明显优于采用托莫西汀进行的治疗。[93]Newcorn JH, Kratochvil CJ, Allen AJ, et al. Atomoxetine and osmotically
released methylphenidate for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder: acute comparison and differential response. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165:721-730.http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05091676http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18281409?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。一项回顾性病历审核表明,托莫西汀与兴奋剂药物组合使用的效果优于单独使用托莫西汀。[94]Scott NG, Ripperger-Suhler J, Rajab MH, et al. Factors associated with atomoxetine efficacy for treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2010;20:197-203.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20578932?tool=bestpractice.com需要更多研究。
每日一次或两次。与立即见效的兴奋剂不同,托莫西汀治疗需要数周才能发挥出全部疗效。这种药物不会加剧抽动,因此可用于有共患抽动患者,[95]Allen AJ, Kurlan RM, Gilbert DL, et al. Atomoxetine treatment in children and adolescents with ADHD and comorbid tic disorder. Neurology. 2005;65:1941-1949.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16380617?tool=bestpractice.com同时对有共患焦虑的患者尤其有用。[96]Geller D, Donnelly C, Lopez F, et al. Atomoxetine treatment for pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with comorbid anxiety disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:1119-1127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17712235?tool=bestpractice.com在安全性方面,2005 年,美国食品药品监督管理局建议添加关于儿童和青少年自杀意念增加的黑框警告。在对照研究中,风险较小(仅千分之四),且没有病例完成自杀。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com[97]US Food and Drug Administration. Public health advisory: suicidal thinking in children and adolescents being treated with Strattera (atomoxetine). September 2005. http://www.fda.gov/ (last accessed 7 August 2017).http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm051733.htm应与患者及其家人讨论这一警告,并在治疗的前几个月对患者进行自杀意念监测。此外还出现过几例严重肝损害。[98]US Food and Drug Administration. Strattera (atomoxetine). September 2005. http://www.fda.gov/ (last accessed 7 August 2017).https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112170915/http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm152628.htm虽然不建议常规检测肝功能,但在出现肝病体征时(例如黄疸、深色尿),应停用这种药物。托莫西汀还可造成心率和血压升高;与兴奋剂一样,在患有心血管病时应该慎用。与兴奋剂一样,不推荐进行常规心电图筛查。
α-2-肾上腺素能激动剂
α-2-肾上腺素能激动剂广泛用于治疗 ADHD以及共患攻击倾向、兴奋剂诱发的抽动以及兴奋剂诱发的失眠。[99]Banaschewski T, Roessner V, Dittman RW, et al. Non-stimulant medications in the treatment of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13(suppl 1):I102-I116.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15322961?tool=bestpractice.com一项纳入 11 个研究的 meta 分析对此类药物 治疗ADHD 的支持证据进行了分析,发现对 ADHD 症状有中等效果。[100]Rains A, Scahill L, Hamrin V. Nonstimulant medications for the treatment of ADHD. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2006;19:44-47.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16464217?tool=bestpractice.comα-2-肾上腺素能激动剂与症状控制:存在中等质量证据;可乐定研究显示了 0.6 的中等效果量。[101]Connor DF, Fletcher KE, Swanson JM. A meta-analysis of clonidine for symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:1551-1559.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10596256?tool=bestpractice.com在对 34 名同时患有 ADHD 和抽动障碍的儿童进行的胍法辛与安慰剂对比研究中,胍法辛显著改善了症状。[102]Scahill L, Chappell PB, Kim YS, et al. A placebo-controlled study of guanfacine in the treatment of children with tic disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1067-1074.http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1067http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11431228?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。胍法辛和可乐定都有速释型和缓释型两种制剂。
胍法辛是α-肾上腺素能激动剂,常用于有抽动性运动障碍共病或无法耐受兴奋剂药物或托莫西汀的患者。其镇静作用弱于另一种α-肾上腺素能激动剂——可乐定,因此常在白天使用。因为每天需要服用多剂,这种药物很难与上学调和;但缓释制剂可使其更加便利(已经证明,缓释胍法辛对 ADHD儿童和青少年是有效的单药物疗法)。[103]Biederman J, Melmed RD, Patel A, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2008;121:e73-e84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18166547?tool=bestpractice.com研究表明,与安慰剂相比,用缓释型胍法辛治疗,特别是与兴奋剂组合时,对减少 ADHD 症状有效。[104]Wilens TE, Bukstein O, Brams M, et al. A controlled trial of extended-release guanfacine and psychostimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;51:74-85.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22176941?tool=bestpractice.com[105]Sallee F, McGough J, Wigal T, et al. Guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48:155-165.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19106767?tool=bestpractice.com此外,一双盲研究证明,缓释型胍法辛可有效治疗有 ADHD 和对立症状的患者。[106]Connor DF, Findling RL, Kollins SH, et al. Effects of guanfacine extended release on oppositional symptoms in children aged 6-12 years with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional symptoms: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CNS Drugs. 2010;24:755-768.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20806988?tool=bestpractice.com
两个随机对照试验表明,与安慰剂相比,缓释型可乐定可有效改善 ADHD 症状,且患者对缓释型可乐定有很好的耐受性。[107]Kollins SH, Jain R, Brams M, et al. Clonidine extended-release tablets as add-on therapy to psychostimulants in children and adolescents with ADHD. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1406-e1413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21555501?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Croxtall JD. Clonidine extended-release: in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Paediatr Drugs. 2011;13:329-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21888447?tool=bestpractice.com
专家共识指出,α-2 肾上腺素能激动剂对 ADHD 中活动过度-冲动症状的疗效优于注意缺陷症状。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com
因为这些药物属于抗高血压药,偶尔会出现包括低血压、心动过缓和反弹性高血压等效应。[100]Rains A, Scahill L, Hamrin V. Nonstimulant medications for the treatment of ADHD. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2006;19:44-47.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16464217?tool=bestpractice.com医生应在开始治疗前询问心血管病史,在首次使用药物时或在剂量调整过程中监测血压,并通过逐渐调整剂量来避免血压变化。不良反应包括镇静、口干和头晕。
抗抑郁药
如果患者对兴奋剂、α-2 肾上腺素能激动剂或托莫西汀没有反应,临床医生应审查诊断,考虑共病情况,例如抑郁症或学习障碍,并考虑将患者转诊至专科医生,以进一步治疗。四线治疗包括 TCA、安非他酮和行为治疗。
几项双盲、安慰剂对照试验已经证明,安非他酮的效果优于安慰剂,但低于兴奋剂药物。[109]Conners CK, Casat CD, Gualtieri CT, et al. Bupropion hydrochloride in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35;1314-1321.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8885585?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Wilens TE, Haight BR, Horrigan JP, et al. Bupropion XL in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:793-801.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15820237?tool=bestpractice.com安非他酮与安慰剂对比:中等质量证据表明,这种药物的患者耐受性不错,但其效果量小于兴奋剂药物。[109]Conners CK, Casat CD, Gualtieri CT, et al. Bupropion hydrochloride in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35;1314-1321.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8885585?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。因为可以降低发作阈值,安非他酮在癫痫疾病患者中禁用。常常通过分次给药来加强安全性并最大限度降低不良反应。
多个对照试验已证明 TCA 治疗 ADHD有效。[111]Biederman J, Spencer T. Non-stimulant treatments for ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;9(suppl 1):I51-I59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11140780?tool=bestpractice.com[112]Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, et al. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment of ADD: I. efficacy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989;28:777-784.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2676967?tool=bestpractice.com三环抗抑郁剂和症状控制:中等质量证据表明,三环抗抑郁剂可对 ADHD 的症状起到积极作用。[111]Biederman J, Spencer T. Non-stimulant treatments for ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;9(suppl 1):I51-I59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11140780?tool=bestpractice.com随机分配到地昔帕明和安慰剂组的患者在行为改善方面表现出明显差异。[112]Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, et al. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment of ADD: I. efficacy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989;28:777-784.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2676967?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。鉴于心脏毒性风险,临床医生应在首次使用 TCA 前和每次增加剂量后行心电图检查。治疗 ADHD 所需的血浆水平可能低于治疗抑郁所需水平,因此应根据临床症状将剂量调至最大。与使用 TCA 治疗抑郁时一样,为了避免中毒,可能需要监测血浆水平。常见不良反应包括口干、镇静、便秘、视力变化和心动过速。值得注意的是,过量使用 TCA 可能致命;对于自杀风险高的患者,例如有既往自杀未遂史、冲动、共病抑郁症或双相障碍的患者,应避免使用 TCA。[99]Banaschewski T, Roessner V, Dittman RW, et al. Non-stimulant medications in the treatment of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13(suppl 1):I102-I116.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15322961?tool=bestpractice.com
针对睡眠失调、攻击倾向、抽动的辅助治疗
对于出现 ADHD 相关睡眠失调、攻击倾向和抽动的 ADHD 儿童,α-2-肾上腺素能激动剂常常是首选药。[99]Banaschewski T, Roessner V, Dittman RW, et al. Non-stimulant medications in the treatment of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13(suppl 1):I102-I116.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15322961?tool=bestpractice.com虽然兴奋剂通常不会加剧抽动,并且没有证据表明兴奋剂会造成永久性抽动,许多家庭还是宁愿在最初的治疗中采用能同时改善两种共存疾病的方法。非兴奋剂药物还可安全地与兴奋剂联合给药。目前已经发现,胍法辛和可乐定可以有效地减少攻击行为,改善挫折容忍度,减少行为障碍症状,并在某些病例中降低治疗 ADHD所需的兴奋剂药物剂量。
虽然医生经常在药方中使用非典型抗精神病药来治疗共患的攻击倾向——特别是对于有自闭症谱系障碍的儿童,目前尚无已知的前瞻性随机对照试验对其在 ADHD 中的使用进行评估。一项开放的研究对阿立哌唑进行了评估,但该研究仅能提供试点数据,且样本量小 (n=14)。[113]Findling RL, Short EJ, Leskovec T, et al. Aripiprazole in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008;18:347-354.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18759644?tool=bestpractice.com因此,目前尚无证据在 ADHD 病例选择抗精神病药治疗。
辅助性行为治疗
如果 ADHD 患者对药物的反应不够理想、有共患病或家庭紧张,药物联合行为治疗通常有益。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com[78]MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999:56:1073-1086.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205525http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10591283?tool=bestpractice.com
行为治疗包括对以下内容进行家长培训:交流、正面反馈、有效暂停和协调学校行为计划。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com[78]MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999:56:1073-1086.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/205525http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10591283?tool=bestpractice.com MTA 研究是以 579 名 ADHD 儿童为对象的国立精神健康研究院研究,比较了兴奋剂药物、行为治疗以及兴奋剂联合行为治疗在 14、24 和 36 个月时的效果。该研究确定:在 ADHD 的各个方面,药物均明显优于单独的行为治疗。然而,药物和行为治疗的组合疗法确实以较低的药物剂量在关键领域(包括家长和老师提供的注意缺陷评级、家长提供的活动过度-冲动评级、家长提供的对立/攻击行为评级以及焦虑和抑郁的内向性症状)实现了改善。对于家长报告的家庭作业问题,单独行为疗法或与兴奋剂药物组合使用是能够获得持续改进的唯一干预手段。[114]Langberg JM, Arnold LE, Flowers AM, et al. Parent-reported homework problems in the MTA study: evidence for sustained improvement with behavioral treatment. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2010;39:220-233.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20390813?tool=bestpractice.com作者得出结论:对于有共患病或家庭资源有限的儿童来说,组合治疗和行为治疗都是很好的疗法,但并非所有 ADHD 患者都需要此类治疗。值得注意的是,在 36 个月时,行为治疗、组合治疗和药物治疗的相对益处不明确;但这可能是因为药物治疗组缺少严格的随访。[80]Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM, et al. 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:989-1002.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17667478?tool=bestpractice.com
目前已经证明,对于表现出 ADHD 早期迹象的学龄前儿童来说,“神奇的年龄”[The Incredible Years (IY)] 家长培训 (PT) 基础课程是很有帮助的干预。[115]Jones K, Daley D, Hutchings J, et al. Efficacy of the Incredible
Years Programme as an early intervention for children with conduct problems and
ADHD: long-term follow-up. Child Care Health Dev. 2008;34:380-390.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410644?tool=bestpractice.com
一项关于青少年治疗方法的系统评价发现,心理社会治疗联合行为应变管理、激励策略以及学习、组织和社会技能培训技术对 ADHD 症状的效果不一致。然而,这些方法对学习和组织技能有明显益处。[116]Chan E, Fogler JM, Hammerness PG. Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: a systematic review. JAMA. 2016;315:1997-2008.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27163988?tool=bestpractice.com
一项 meta 分析显示,对于有障碍(包括 ADHD)的儿童和青少年,与给予常规初级治疗相比,将药物和行为治疗相结合可以改善结局。使用协作医疗模式,效果最强。[117]Asarnow JR, Rozenman M, Wiblin J, et al. Integrated medical-behavioral care compared with usual primary care for child and adolescent behavioral health: a meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 2015;169:929-937.httphttp://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2422331http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26259143?tool=bestpractice.com
专科转诊
作为一般性指导原则,如果两种药物治疗失败,怀疑患者有精神异常共病(例如抑郁和 ADHD),或怀疑患者有癫痫、智力障碍或遗传疾病,应将患者转诊至治疗 ADHD 的专科医生(例如儿童精神科医生、神经科医生或发育儿科医生)。
认知行为疗法 (CBT)、食谱调整、脑电图反馈、脊柱按摩疗法
CBT、食谱调整、脑电图反馈和脊柱按摩疗法等非药物干预(行为治疗之外)的有效性尚未得到证明。[21]Pliszka S, AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:894-921.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581453?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Karpouzis F, Bonello R, Pollard H. Chiropractic care for paediatric and adolescent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Chiropr Osteopat. 2010;18:13.https://chiromt.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1746-1340-18-13http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20525195?tool=bestpractice.com