在成人,肾小管酸中毒的诊断常常是观察到了血和尿中不可解释的、偶然发现的酸碱参数和电解质浓度变化。在儿童,其诊断常常是依据发现了生长迟缓、佝偻病或生长不良。因呼吸代偿,患者很少表现为严重的酸中毒和酸中毒深大呼吸。
表现
典型的远端 RTA 可能无症状,但患者可能有肾结石或肾钙质沉着症病史。对于结石患者应检测血清碳酸氢根和尿pH。复发性肾结石患者的评估应包括针对弥漫性肾钙化的腹部X线检查。
遗传性远端肾小管酸中毒可能伴随耳聋。
高钾血症型远端肾小管酸中毒患者常有糖尿病或前列腺疾病史。
儿童近端肾小管酸中毒患者表现为生长迟缓,伴有Fanconi 综合征时可有肾性佝偻病。因此建议3岁以前如果低于平均身高应检测动脉化静脉pH值。[104]Oduwole AO, Giwa OS, Arogundade RA. Relationship between rickets and incomplete distal renal tubular acidosis in children. Ital J Pediatr. 2010;36:54.http://ijponline.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1824-7288-36-54http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20699008?tool=bestpractice.com[105]Mul D, Grote FK, Goudriaan JR, et al. Should blood gas analysis be part of the diagnostic workup of short children? Auxological data and blood gas analysis in children with renal tubular acidosis. Horm Res Paediatr. 2010;74:351-357.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20693779?tool=bestpractice.com对 Fanconi 综合征的评估通常以下面两种情况之一开始。第一种情况,患者在发现低血清碳酸氢根后检查发现还有高氯血症性代谢性酸中毒和碳酸氢盐消耗;另一种情况是患者被诊断为一种疾病,且该疾病与Fanconi 综合征相关,例如某些遗传性疾病,或者获得性疾病如肾性佝偻病。
既往史与肾小管酸中毒
有轻度慢性肾脏疾病和自主神经病变的糖尿病患者,有发生低血肾素性醛固酮减少症和选择性醛固酮缺乏风险,故可能出现高钾血症型远端RTA(IV型)。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Sebastian A, Schambelan M, Lindenfeld S, et al. Amelioration of metabolic acidosis with fludrocortisone therapy in hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. N Engl J Med. 1977;297:576-583.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18672?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Sebastian A, Schambelan M, Sutton JM. Amelioration of hyperchloremic acidosis with furosemide therapy in patients with chronic renal insufficiency and type 4 renal tubular acidosis. Am J Nephrol. 1984;4:287-300.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6524600?tool=bestpractice.com
肾上腺皮质功能不全未经治疗或治疗不足时,也易引起高钾血症型远端肾小管酸中毒。
系统性红斑狼疮、慢性活动性肝炎、甲状腺炎、肾移植相关的间质性肾炎可能导致肾小管酸中毒。
遗传性果糖不耐受与 Fanconi 综合征相关。
据报道有高达50%的原发性胆汁性肝硬化患者伴发经典的远端肾小管酸中毒。
遗传性远端RTA在泰国和东南亚人群更常见。
眼异常(白内障、青光眼、带状角膜病变)、生长迟缓、智力受损和基底节钙化与一种罕见的常染色体隐性遗传性近端RTA相关。
甲状旁腺功能亢进可导致近端RTA和部分Fanconi 综合征。
对于患有与 Fanconi 综合征相关的遗传性代谢疾病者(例如 Lowe 综合征、威尔森病、丹氏病、胱氨酸病、半乳糖血症、遗传性果糖不耐受、冯吉尔克氏病)的人群,应评估有无近端小管 RTA、糖尿、磷酸盐尿和氨基酸尿。
药物、毒物和环境暴露
一些药物与RTA相关:
与RTA有关的毒物:
环境暴露:
研究方法
RTA的研究通常遵循2条路线。
所有类型的远端 RTA 的诊断最终都取决于检测出尿 pH 值升高,或存在高氯血症性代谢性酸中毒情况下尿铵排泄降低。[2]Morris RC Jr. Renal tubular acidosis. Mechanisms, classification and implications. N Engl J Med. 1969;281:1405-1413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4901460?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com对于近端RTA,在高氯血症低钾血症性代谢性酸中毒患者中证实有碳酸氢盐消耗方能诊断。[2]Morris RC Jr. Renal tubular acidosis. Mechanisms, classification and implications. N Engl J Med. 1969;281:1405-1413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4901460?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Igarashi T, Sekine T, Inatomi J, et al. Unraveling the molecular pathogenesis of isolated proximal renal tubular acidosis. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2171-2177.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138151?tool=bestpractice.com 确诊Fanconi 综合征依赖于两个检测方法:
证明了近端RTA的诊断
评估肾脏对葡萄糖、磷酸盐和氨基酸排泄。
实验室评估
RTA的诊断完全依赖于血液和尿液的酸碱参数和电解质浓度的实验室检查。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com
诊断一定要有动脉血pH,PCO2和碳酸氢根的测定。
对所有患者应常规进行血清碳酸氢根、氯化物、钠、钾和血清阴离子间隙检查。
在高钾血症型远端RTA,血清醛固酮的测量用于区分醛固酮缺乏和醛固酮抵抗。
尿液pH值必须由pH电极或血气分析仪测定;且对所有怀疑RTA患者均应进行检查。
如高氯血症性代谢性酸中毒伴尿 pH 值超过 5.5,可诊断为典型远端 RTA。
如果尿 pH 值正常偏低 (<5.5),应通过尿液阴离子间隙测定来估算尿铵浓度。
在 pH 值低于 6.0 的尿中,如果尿中氯化物浓度超过钠和钾浓度之和,则尿液中存在铵。[106]Batlle DC, Hizon M, Cohen E, et al. The use of urinary anion gap in the diagnosis of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:594-599.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3344005?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Oh MS, Carroll HJ. Value and determinants of urine anion gap. Nephron. 2002;90:252-255.[108]Laski ME, Kurtzman NA. Evaluation of acid-base disorders from the urine. In: Seldin DW and Giebisch G, eds. The regulation of acid-base balance. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1989:265-283.
如在酸性 (pH <6.0) 尿中尿钠和钾浓度之和超过尿中氯化物浓度,则尿中一定没有铵;这提示存在高钾血症型 RTA。
在诊断不明确,或属于不完全远端RTA时,确诊远端RTA需要生理学检测来完成。酸化生理学测试包括:[108]Laski ME, Kurtzman NA. Evaluation of acid-base disorders from the urine. In: Seldin DW and Giebisch G, eds. The regulation of acid-base balance. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1989:265-283.[109]Vallo A, Rodriguez-Soriano J. Oral phosphate-loading test for the assessment of distal urinary acidification in children. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1984;10:387-390.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6438464?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Halperin ML, Goldstein MB, Haig A, et al. Studies on the pathogenesis of type 1 (distal) renal tubular acidosis as revealed by the urinary PCO2 tensions. J Clin Invest. 1974;53:669-677.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4812435?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Stinebaugh BJ, Shloeder FX, Gharafry E, et al. Mechanism by which neutral phosphate infusion elevates urine PCO2. J Lab Clin Med. 1977;89:946-958.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16069?tool=bestpractice.com
尿pH值和钾离子浓度对速尿的反应,或尿pH值对速尿、氟氢可的松的反应,可确诊高钾血症型远端RTA。
氯化铵负荷诱导酸中毒后测量尿pH值可帮助确认是不完全的远端RTA还是远端RTA;但这个测试是令患者不舒适的。
以下测试用于研究用途,以明确远端RTA的病变部位或其机制:测量尿PCO2减去血PCO2来确定给予磷酸盐负荷后尿中PCO2增加与否,和/或尿液pH值在给予硫酸盐负荷后的反应,以及碳酸氢钠输注后尿PCO2变化,以确认两性霉素-B诱导的远端RTA。
疑似近端RTA的确诊需要碳酸氢钠输注和测定碳酸氢根排泄分数。
解释动脉血pH值,碳酸盐,和阴离子间隙
代谢性酸中毒和呼吸性碱中毒中均可见血清碳酸氢根浓度降低,所以应首先明确动脉血pH值低于正常(低于7.37)。
如果动脉血pH值正常或升高,那么低血清碳酸氢根的原因就是对呼吸性碱中毒的正常适应。
如果动脉血pH值偏低,接下来的问题是血清阴离子间隙正常还是增加了。
所有类型 RTA 的阴离子间隙均正常,血清阴离子间隙增高则提示存在另一种类型的酸中毒。[107]Oh MS, Carroll HJ. Value and determinants of urine anion gap. Nephron. 2002;90:252-255.[112]Emmett M, Narins RG. Clinical use of the anion gap. Medicine (Baltimore). 1977;56:38-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/401925?tool=bestpractice.com
同时具有血清碳酸氢盐下降、高氯血症、酸血症,且血清阴离子间隙正常,表明患者有高氯血症性非间隙性代谢性酸中毒,但尚不能证明有RTA。[106]Batlle DC, Hizon M, Cohen E, et al. The use of urinary anion gap in the diagnosis of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:594-599.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3344005?tool=bestpractice.com
解释尿pH值和电解质
为完成RTA的诊断,还必须证明尿液酸化功能减弱(远端RTA),或碳酸氢根重吸收严重不足(近端RTA)。
2种尿检结果中任何一项阳性都可以诊断远端RTA:[40]Palmer BF. Managing hyperkalemia caused by inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:585-592.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15295051?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Laski ME, Kurtzman NA. Evaluation of acid-base disorders from the urine. In: Seldin DW and Giebisch G, eds. The regulation of acid-base balance. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1989:265-283.
可通过直接测量尿铵浓度证明(很少做)是否有尿铵,或通过测量尿钠、钾、氯和阴离子间隙来计算。[106]Batlle DC, Hizon M, Cohen E, et al. The use of urinary anion gap in the diagnosis of hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:594-599.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3344005?tool=bestpractice.com如尿中氯离子浓度接近或超过了钠和钾浓度之和,可断定酸性尿中几乎没有铵。
解释血清电解质
仅有低血清碳酸氢盐和高氯血症,而没有检验动脉血气时仍不能诊断RTA。
诊断近端RTA需要证明碳酸氢根排泄分数达15%,或当输注碳酸氢盐以提高血清碳酸氢根浓度时其数值可高达到约20mmol/L (20 mEq/L)。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com
近端RTA的特点是低钾血症,典型的远端RTA也是如此。[1]Batlle D, Moorthi KM, Schluter W, et al. Distal renal tubular acidosis and the potassium enigma. Semin Nephrol. 2006;26:471-478.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17275585?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com
远端RTA高钾血症的原因是醛固酮缺乏或抵抗。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com
评估正在接受药物治疗但又没有明显的酸中毒或低碳酸氢根血症的患者是否存在远端RTA风险时,需要进行生理学测试检查。
放射学
RTA的影像学征象包括肾钙质沉着症(远端RTA)、骨质疏松、骨硬化、肾结石,和遗传性碳酸酐酶II缺乏患者的脑钙化。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Brenner RJ, Spring DB, Sebastian A, et al. Incidence of radiographically evident bone disease, nephrocalcinosis, and nephrolithiasis in various types of renal tubular acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:217-221.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7088070?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Higashihara E, Nutahara K, Tago K, et al. Medullary sponge kidney and renal acidification defect. Kidney Int. 1984;25:453-459.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6727141?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Morris RC, Yamauchi H, Palubinskas AJ, et al. Medullary sponge kidney. Am J Med. 1965;38:883-892.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14310004?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Sly WS, Hewett-Emmett D, Whyte MP, et al. Carbonic anhydrase II deficiency identified as the primary defect in the autosomal recessive syndrome of osteopetrosis with renal tubular acidosis and cerebral calcification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983;80:2752-2756.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6405388?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Sly WS, Whyte MP, Sundaram V, et al. Carbonic anhydrase II deficiency in 12 families with the autosomal recessive syndrome of osteopetrosis with renal tubular acidosis and cerebral calcification. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:139-145.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3925334?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Izzedine H, Launay-Vacher V, Isnard-Bagnis C, et al. Drug-induced Fanconi's syndrome. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;41:292-309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12552490?tool=bestpractice.com
经典的远端RTA患者应行腹部X线或CT扫描以评估肾钙化或结石的情况。CT扫描更优,但低价的肾、输尿管和膀胱X线检查就足够了。
对不明原因的高钾血症型远端RTA患者需应用超声、核肾脏扫描或螺旋CT扫描评估尿路梗阻情况。这些项目中超声的潜在危害最小,但不如核扫描敏感,且较CT更多的依赖操作者水平。虽然核扫描需要注射放射性示踪剂,但它是最敏感的检查。螺旋CT既无创,也与操作者无关,但不如核扫描敏感,且昂贵。
近端 RTA 或氢离子回漏时没有值得注意的影像学问题。近端RTA伴Fanconi 综合征可有肾性佝偻病迹象,但影像学表现罕见。
RTA的经典临床/实验室/放射报告总结
患者通常无症状;很少因严重酸中毒和呼吸代偿出现酸中毒深大呼吸。
当实验室检查结果和既往史与RTA相关时,可在必要时进一步检查。
儿童的生长迟缓或肾性佝偻病合并低钾血症性非阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒和极低血清碳酸氢根提示近端RTA(II型)或遗传性远端RTA(Ⅰ型)。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com
低磷血症、糖尿和尿中有氨基酸则提示 Fanconi 综合征伴近端 RTA。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com罕见情况下,多发性骨髓瘤可能与 Fanconi 综合征和近端 RTA 相关。[87]Maldonado JE, Velosa JA, Kyle RA, et al. Fanconi syndrome in adults: a manifestation of a latent form of myeloma. Am J Med. 1975;58:354-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/163583?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Rochman J, Lichtig C, Osterweill D, et al. Adult Fanconi's syndrome with renal tubular acidosis in association with renal amyloidosis: occurrence in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Arch Intern Med. 1980;140:1361-1363.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6775610?tool=bestpractice.com
低钾血症、代谢性酸中毒合并骨硬化提示碳酸酐酶II发生了突变。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Sly WS, Hewett-Emmett D, Whyte MP, et al. Carbonic anhydrase II deficiency identified as the primary defect in the autosomal recessive syndrome of osteopetrosis with renal tubular acidosis and cerebral calcification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1983;80:2752-2756.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6405388?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Sly WS, Whyte MP, Sundaram V, et al. Carbonic anhydrase II deficiency in 12 families with the autosomal recessive syndrome of osteopetrosis with renal tubular acidosis and cerebral calcification. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:139-145.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3925334?tool=bestpractice.com 碳酸酐酶II缺乏症表现为酸氢盐消耗和不能降低终尿pH值。
低钾血症型非阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒合并感音神经性耳聋可能提示常染色体隐性的经典远端RTA(Ⅰ型)。[6]Karet FE. Inherited distal renal tubular acidosis. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2178-2184.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2178.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138152?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Karet FE, Finberg KE, Nelson RD, et al: Mutations in the gene encoding the B1 subunit of H+-ATPase cause renal tubular acidosis with sensorineural deafness. Nat Genet. 1999;21:84-90.[14]Smith AN, Skaug J, Choate KA, et al. Mutations in ATP6N1B, encoding a new kidney vacuolar proton pump 116-kD subunit, cause recessive distal renal tubular acidosis with preserved hearing. Nat Genet. 2000;26:71-75.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10973252?tool=bestpractice.com
成人有肾结石、肾钙化和高氯血症性代谢性酸中毒者应考虑经典的远端RTA。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Brenner RJ, Spring DB, Sebastian A, et al. Incidence of radiographically evident bone disease, nephrocalcinosis, and nephrolithiasis in various types of renal tubular acidosis. N Engl J Med. 1982;307:217-221.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7088070?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Higashihara E, Nutahara K, Tago K, et al. Medullary sponge kidney and renal acidification defect. Kidney Int. 1984;25:453-459.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6727141?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Morris RC, Yamauchi H, Palubinskas AJ, et al. Medullary sponge kidney. Am J Med. 1965;38:883-892.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14310004?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Preminger GM, Sakhaee K, Skurla C, et al. Prevention of recurrent calcium stone formation with potassium citrate therapy in patients with distal renal tubular acidosis. J Urol. 1985;134:20-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4009822?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Buckalew VM Jr, Purvis ML, Shulman MG, et al. Hereditary renal tubular acidosis. Report of a 64 member kindred with variable clinical expression including idiopathic hypercalciuria. Medicine (Baltimore). 1974;53:229-254.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4834851?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Coe FL, Parks JH. Stone disease in heredity distal renal tubular acidosis. Ann Intern Med. 1980;93:60-61.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7396320?tool=bestpractice.com 对成年男性发生的部分尿路梗阻应严密监测酸碱状态和血清钾,如有低血清碳酸氢根则提示有轻度远端RTA(IV型)。[3]Rodriguez Soriano J. Renal tubular acidosis: the clinical entity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2160-2170.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/13/8/2160.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12138150?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Batlle DC, Arruda JA, Kurtzman NA. Hyperkalemic distal renal tubular acidosis associated with obstructive uropathy. N Engl J Med. 1981;304:373-380.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7453754?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Thirakomen K, Kozlov N, Arruda JA, et al. Renal hydrogen ion secretion after release of unilateral ureteral obstruction. Am J Physiol. 1976;231:1233-1239.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10740?tool=bestpractice.com
给两性霉素-B诱导的质子回漏患者输注碳酸氢盐时,尿pH值升高但PCO2不增高。