正常淋巴样细胞群会出现免疫球蛋白及 T 细胞受体 (T-cell receptor, TCR) 基因的多样性克隆重排。细胞在成功完成这些基因变化后会进行高度调控下的增殖,最终产生正常的 B 细胞以及 T 细胞群。淋巴样祖细胞通过体细胞变异出现基因突变后,会导致增殖失控及克隆性扩增。白血病细胞浸润骨髓及其他器官后破坏其正常功能,最终导致急性淋巴细胞白血病的发生。白血病细胞是由单细胞克隆性扩增产生的。可通过细胞遗传学、葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶的特征描述、抗原-受体基因重排及 X-连锁限制性片段长度多态性分析等进行说明。[2]Hoelzer D, Gökbuget N, Ottmann O, et al. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2002 Jan;(1):162-92.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2002/1/162http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12446423?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Cox CV, Blair A. A primitive cell origin for B-cell precursor ALL? Stem Cell Rev. 2005;1(3):189-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17142855?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Randolph TR. Advances in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Clin Lab Sci. 2004 Fall;17(4):235-45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15559730?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Hoffman R, Shattil SJ, Furie B, et al. Hematology: basic principles and practice. Vol 1. 4th ed. Orlando, FL: Churchill Livingstone / W. B. Saunders; 2005.
白血病细胞具有正常淋巴样祖细胞的大多数特征,急性淋巴细胞白血病 (ALL) 的基因学异常包括显微镜下可见的染色体重排或仅仅用分子学方法才能检测到的异常病变。另外,75% 的患者具有染色体易位或异倍体,这些易位经常反复发生并极少能被分类为随机易位。[17]Randolph TR. Advances in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Clin Lab Sci. 2004 Fall;17(4):235-45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15559730?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Hoffman R, Shattil SJ, Furie B, et al. Hematology: basic principles and practice. Vol 1. 4th ed. Orlando, FL: Churchill Livingstone / W. B. Saunders; 2005.[19]D'Achille P, Seymour JF, Campbell LJ. Translocation (14;18)(q32;q21) in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a study of 12 cases and review of the literature. Cancer Genet Cytogenet. 2006 Nov;171(1):52-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17074591?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Faderl S, Jeha S, Kantarjian HM. The biology and therapy of adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer. 2003 Oct 1;98(7):1337-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14508819?tool=bestpractice.com
ALL的分子学异常可根据致癌基因突变所致的功能改变进行分类, 例如{0}ABL{1}蛋白激酶可通过与{2}BCR{3}基因的重排促进增殖。 成人ALL最常出现的细胞遗传学异常是t(9;22)(q34;q11)染色体易位,即Ph染色体。[1]Pui CH, Relling MV, Downing JR. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2004 Apr 8;350(15):1535-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15071128?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Jabbour EJ, Faderl S, Kantarjian HM. Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005 Nov;80(11):1517-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16295033?tool=bestpractice.com[19]D'Achille P, Seymour JF, Campbell LJ. Translocation (14;18)(q32;q21) in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a study of 12 cases and review of the literature. Cancer Genet Cytogenet. 2006 Nov;171(1):52-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17074591?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Secker-Walker LM, Prentice HG, Durrant J, et al. Cytogenetics adds independent prognostic information in adults with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia on MRC trial UKALL XA. MRC Adult Leukaemia Working Party. Br J Haematol. 1997 Mar;96(3):601-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9054669?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Groupe Français de Cytogénétique Hematologique. Cytogenetic abnormalities in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia: correlations with hematologic findings outcome. A Collaborative Study of the Groupe Français de Cytogénétique Hematologique. Blood. 1996 Apr 15;87(8):3135-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8605327?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Wetzler M, Dodge RK, Mrozek K, et al. Prospective karyotype analysis in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia: the cancer and leukemia Group B experience. Blood. 1999 Jun 1;93(11):3983-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10339508?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Wetzler M, Dodge RK, Mrozek K, et al. Additional cytogenetic abnormalities in adults with Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a study of the Cancer and Leukaemia Group B. Br J Haematol. 2004 Feb;124(3):275-88.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14717774?tool=bestpractice.com 费城染色体患者经常患有侵袭性疾病;费城染色体阳性的 ALL 中的 T315I 突变与高度侵袭性疾病有关。[25]Stock W. Current treatment options for adult patients with Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma. 2010 Feb;51(2):188-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20001232?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Watanabe K, Minami Y, Ozawa Y, et al. T315I mutation in Ph-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia is associated with a highly aggressive disease phenotype: three case reports. Anticancer Res. 2012 May;32(5):1779-83.http://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/32/5/1779.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22593461?tool=bestpractice.com
基因表达谱已识别新的 ALL 类别:Ph 样 ALL (Ph-like ALL)。Ph 样 ALL 分别包含 10% 的标准风险儿童 B 系 ALL 和 13% 的高风险儿童 B 系 ALL。[27]Randolph TR. Advances in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Clin Lab Sci. 2004;17:235-245.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15559730?tool=bestpractice.com Ph 样 ALL 的发病率随年龄的增长而增加,在青年病例中的占比>25%。该患者群的无事件生存率和总生存率非常低,与伊马替尼问世以前、Ph 阳性病例的情况类似。[28]Roberts KG, Li Y, Payne-Turner D, et al. Targetable kinase-activating lesions in Ph-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2014 Sep 11;371(11):1005-15.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1403088http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25207766?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Boer JM, Koenders JE, van der Holt B, et al. Expression profiling of adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia identifies a BCR-ABL1-like subgroup characterized by high non-response and relapse rates. Haematologica. 2015 Jul;100(7):e261-4.http://www.haematologica.org/content/100/7/e261.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25769542?tool=bestpractice.com
Ph 样 ALL 患者可被分为以下几类:[30]Yokota T, Kanakura Y. Genetic abnormalities associated with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Sci. 2016 Jun;107(6):721-5.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4968601/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26991355?tool=bestpractice.com
类型 I:无 β 脂蛋白血症类融合(ABL1、ABL2、CSF1R 和 PDGRB)
类型 II:促红细胞生成素受体 (EPOR) 或 JAK2 重排
类型 III:细胞因子受体样因子 2 (cytokine receptor-like factor 2, CRLF2) 重排(常伴有 JAK2 突变和 JAK-STAT 信号活化)
类型 IV:其他激活 JAK-STAT 信号传导的突变(IL7R、FLT3、SH2B3、TYK2 和 IL2RB)
类型 V:不常见的其他激酶突变(NTRK3、DGKH)
类型 VI:RAS 通路突变(KRAS、NRAS、PTPN11、NF1)
类型 VII:激酶基因无突变。
激酶活化突变在 Ph 样 ALL 中的发生频率很高,因此几个小组测试了添加酪氨酸激酶抑制剂,这已改善了治疗结局。[28]Roberts KG, Li Y, Payne-Turner D, et al. Targetable kinase-activating lesions in Ph-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2014 Sep 11;371(11):1005-15.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1403088http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25207766?tool=bestpractice.com
其他基因重排可导致造血发育过程中的转录因子的功能丢失或功能获得突变, 其中t(12;21)(p13;q22)染色体易位后并置形成TEL-AML1基因,就属于该类基因重排。[1]Pui CH, Relling MV, Downing JR. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2004 Apr 8;350(15):1535-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15071128?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Jabbour EJ, Faderl S, Kantarjian HM. Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005 Nov;80(11):1517-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16295033?tool=bestpractice.com
肿瘤形成的其他机制主要包括基因缺失和重排导致的肿瘤抑制基因的丢失或失活;例如 p16 (INK4A)、p53。[1]Pui CH, Relling MV, Downing JR. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2004 Apr 8;350(15):1535-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15071128?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Jabbour EJ, Faderl S, Kantarjian HM. Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005 Nov;80(11):1517-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16295033?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Faderl S, Jeha S, Kantarjian HM. The biology and therapy of adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer. 2003 Oct 1;98(7):1337-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14508819?tool=bestpractice.com
FLT3与NOTCH1分别是MLL/超二倍体和T-ALL发病相关的基因突变。[31]Kox C, Zimmermann M, Stanulla M, et al. The favorable effect of activating NOTCH1 receptor mutations on long-term outcome in T-ALL patients treated on the ALL-BFM 2000 protocol can be separated from FBXW7 loss of function. Leukemia. 2010 Dec;24(12):2005-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20944675?tool=bestpractice.com 另外,CREBBP突变可发生在18%的复发ALL患者中,可能与耐药有关。[32]Mullighan CG, Zhang J, Kasper LH, et al. CREBBP mutations in relapsed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Nature. 2011 Mar 10;471(7337):235-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21390130?tool=bestpractice.com 高达30%的儿童ALL患者会出现PAX5基因突变。[33]Iacobucci I, Lonetti A, Paoloni F, et al. The PAX5 gene is frequently rearranged in BCR-ABL1-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia but is not associated with outcome. A report on behalf of the GIMEMA Acute Leukemia Working Party. Haematologica. 2010 Oct;95(10):1683-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20534699?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Coyaud E, Struski S, Prade N, et al. Wide diversity of PAX5 alterations in B-ALL: a Groupe Francophone de Cytogenetique Hematologique study. Blood. 2010 Apr 15;115(15):3089-97.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20160164?tool=bestpractice.com IKZF1突变可能具有预测复发的功能。[35]Kuiper RP, Waanders E, van der Velden VH, et al. IKZF1 deletions predict relapse in uniformly treated pediatric precursor B-ALL. Leukemia. 2010 Jul;24(7):1258-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20445578?tool=bestpractice.com 38%的成人T-ALL患者具有PHF6突变。[36]Van Vlierberghe P, Palomero T, Khiabanian H, et al. PHF6 mutations in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet. 2010 Apr;42(4):338-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20228800?tool=bestpractice.com 42%的T-ALL患者具有CDKN2A突变。[37]Marks DI, Wang T, Pérez WS, et al. The outcome of full-intensity and reduced-intensity conditioning matched sibling or unrelated donor transplantation in adults with Philadelphia chromosome-negative acute lymphoblastic leukemia in first and second complete remission. Blood. 2010 Jul 22;116(3):366-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20404137?tool=bestpractice.com 我们尚未了解如何使用这些数据产生临床影响。