急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的治疗目标是支持疗法和使用小潮气量来限制吸气末平台压的保护性肺通气策略,如果怀疑急性呼吸窘迫综合征的潜在病因是感染,那么应当明确和控制感染源并立即开始抗生素治疗。另外近期目标是支持疗法和并发症的预防。急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的死亡通常不是主要由于呼吸衰竭,大多数患者死于二重感染、其他器官衰竭或长期住院治疗的并发症。
氧合
氧饱和度应该维持在88%以上,通常需要机械通气,偶尔患者可以应用无创通气,[33]Agarwal R, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D. Role of noninvasive ventilation in acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome: a proportion meta-analysis. Respir Care. 2010;55:1653-1660.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21122173?tool=bestpractice.com但失败率高,多数需要气管插管。呼吸机相关性肺损伤通过应用小潮气量和限制平台压的保护性通气策略而减少,在一个大型、多中心、随机试验中,这种治疗方法降低了病死率。[34]The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301-1308.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200005043421801#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10793162?tool=bestpractice.com病死率:中等质量证据表明成人急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者应用小潮气量机械通气较大潮气量机械通气能降低第28天和180天的病死率(虽然在180天没有统计学差异)。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。应该应用6mL/kg预测体重的潮气量来保持吸气平台压<30cmH2O,男性预测体重的计算公式为50+0.91×[身高(cm)-152.4],女性为45.5+0.91×[身高(cm)-152.4]。[34]The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301-1308.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200005043421801#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10793162?tool=bestpractice.com如果平台压>30cm H2O,如有必要,应该将潮气量降低至5mL/kg甚至低至4mL/kg。PEEP和吸氧浓度应该按已制定的方案进行调整。[34]The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1301-1308.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200005043421801#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10793162?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N, et al. Higher versus lower positive end expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:327-336.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa032193#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15269312?tool=bestpractice.com尽管较高水平的 PEEP 不会改善死亡率,[35]Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N, et al. Higher versus lower positive end expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:327-336.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa032193#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15269312?tool=bestpractice.com但现有数据提示,较高水平的 PEEP 是安全的,可能改善某些患者的氧合。[36]Meade MO, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH, et al. Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;299:637-645.http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/299/6/637http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18270352?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Mercat A, Richard JC, Vielle B, et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure setting in adults with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;299:646-655.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=181426http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18270353?tool=bestpractice.com较高和较低水平的PEEP试验荟萃分析提示严重低氧血症(ARDS)应用较高水平的PEEP可能受益,尽管这些观察是回顾性的。[38]Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A, et al. Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in
patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome:
systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2010;303:865-873.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=185447http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20197533?tool=bestpractice.com鉴别患者在更高水平PEEP时肺泡是复张还是过度扩张仍然是一个重要的临床挑战。
神经肌肉松弛剂改善人机同步,常常能够改善氧合。在严重急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者(氧合指数<150)的随机试验中,应用阿曲库铵48h行神经肌肉松弛可改善氧供和死亡率,调整后的分析显示其不增加ICU相关性麻痹。[39]Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:1107-1116.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20843245?tool=bestpractice.com尽管采用小潮气量通气和充分镇静,仍不能达到足够的氧合(血氧饱和度>88%),尤其是有人机不同步的证据,应该使用神经肌肉松弛药物。间歇剂量使用与持续静脉输注肌肉松弛剂一样有效。如果患者采用连续静脉输注,应该使用一系列4导监护装置监测使用药物后肌纤维的颤搐反应。
俯卧位通气可以改善急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的氧合,但最初不认为会降低病死率。[40]Gattinoni L, Tognoni G, Pesenti A, et al. Effect of prone positioning on the survival of patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:568-573.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11529210?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Alsaghir AH, Martin CM. Effect of prone positioning in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:603-609.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18216609?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Sud S, Sud M, Friedrich JO, et al. Effect of mechanical ventilation in
the prone position on clinical outcomes in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2008;178:1153-1161.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2292779/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18427090?tool=bestpractice.com2个俯卧位通气试验的荟萃分析显示俯卧位通气降低了最严重的急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的病死率。[43]Sud S, Friedrich JO, Taccone P, et al. Prone ventilation reduces mortality in patients with acute respiratory failure and severe hypoxemia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:585-599.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20130832?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Abroug F, Ouanes-Besbes L, Dachraoui F, et al. An updated study-level meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on proning in ARDS and acute lung injury. Crit Care. 2011;15:R6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3222033/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21211010?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Bloomfield R, Noble DW, Sudlow A. Prone position for acute respiratory failure in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(11):CD008095.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008095.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26561745?tool=bestpractice.com这一发现导致了针对中至重度急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者(氧合指数<150,吸氧浓度分数0.6,PEEP≥5cm H2O)每日16h俯卧位通气的临床试验。[46]Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al; PROSEVA Study Group. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:2159-2168.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23688302?tool=bestpractice.com一项纳入了466例患者的随机临床试验显示俯卧位通气组28d病死率显著降低,令人鼓舞的是仰卧组和俯卧组的并发症发生率没有显著差异,不过,研究人员对俯卧位通气的患者经验丰富,不过,研究人员对俯卧位通气的患者经验丰富,鉴于俯卧位通气潜在的并发症,包括面部水肿、压疮、导管和气管内插管移位,俯卧位通气应该只用于氧合指数<150的患者。
呼吸性酸中毒是小潮气量通气的并发症,可以通过增加呼吸频率进行治疗。小潮气量通气时血碳酸常不能达到正常(也不应该是目标),并且许多患者会出现呼吸性酸中毒。虽然不知道急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者小潮气量通气所致的允许性高碳酸血症时呼吸性酸中毒到什么程度是有害的,大多数临床医师的目标是血液pH>7.15,当pH<7.15时可以输注碳酸氢盐。
难治性低氧血症
尽管吸纯氧和高水平的PEEP,患者仍存在难治性低氧血症时应该考虑氧合的挽救治疗。
1.嗜睡
这减少了人机不同步,镇静方案可用于指导镇静程度。[32]Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ, et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:1338-1344.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12421743?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Devlin JW, Boleski G, Mlynarek M, et al. Motor Activity Assessment Scale: a valid and reliable sedation scale for use with mechanically ventilated patients in an adult surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1271-1275.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10446819?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Riker RR, Picard JT, Fraser GL. Prospective evaluation of the Sedation-Agitation Scale for adult critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1325-1329.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10446827?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Weinert C, McFarland L. The state of intubated ICU patients: development of a two-dimensional sedation rating scale for critically ill adults. Chest. 2004;126:1883-1890.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1082971http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596688?tool=bestpractice.com虽然急性呼吸窘迫综合征的专门指南很少,但大多数氧合困难的患者需要深度镇静(Richmond 躁动镇静评分 [Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale, RASS] 为 4-5 分)。一旦实现了彻底镇静,如果患者仍然缺氧,有使用肌肉松弛剂进一步减少人机对抗的指征。
监护急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者时镇静评分很重要,常用的已验证过的镇静评分为RASS评分:[32]Sessler CN, Gosnell MS, Grap MJ, et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:1338-1344.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12421743?tool=bestpractice.com
其他已验证的镇静评分包括Riker或Ramsey。
2.2.吸入一氧化氮和吸入前列环素
吸入一氧化氮可以改善急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的氧合,但并不能改善病死率,并且与急性肾损伤有关,[50]Taylor RW, Zimmerman JL, Dellinger RP, et al. Low-dose inhaled nitric oxide in patients with acute lung injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1603-1609.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15069048?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Adhikari NK, Burns KE, Friedrich JO, et al. Effect of nitric oxide on oxygenation and mortality in acute lung injury: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2007;334:779.http://www.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17383982http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17383982?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Gebistorf F, Karam O, Wetterslev J, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and acute lung injury in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(6):CD002787.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002787.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27347773?tool=bestpractice.com因此只能用作难治性低氧血症的挽救治疗。吸入前列环素比吸入一氧化氮更容易管理,也可能通过更好的通气血流匹配改善急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的氧合,但是目前没有发表的吸入前列环素的大型随机对照试验,因此只能作为挽救治疗谨慎使用。[53]Afshari A, Brok J, Møller AM, et al. Aerosolized prostacyclin for acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(8):CD007733.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007733.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20687093?tool=bestpractice.com
3.体外膜肺氧合
在一些中心,体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)用于严重的难治性低氧血症患者。一项随机对照试验显示转移严重急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者去可以提供体外膜肺氧合和急性呼吸窘迫综合征标准临床管理方法的三级医疗中心可以改善预后,不是所有转移的患者都接受体外膜肺氧合。[54]Peek GJ, Mugford M, Tiruvoipati R, et al. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374:1351-1363.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19762075?tool=bestpractice.com
4.高频振荡通气
尽管已经证明在中至重度急性呼吸窘迫综合征中常规使用高频振荡通气 (HFOV) 没有益处[55]Young D, Lamb SE, Shah S, et al; OSCAR Study Group. High-frequency oscillation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:806-813.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23339638?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Sud S, Sud M, Friedrich JO, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation versus conventional ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(4):CD004085.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004085.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27043185?tool=bestpractice.com或可能有害,[57]Ferguson ND, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH, et al; OSCILLATE Trial Investigators; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. High-frequency oscillation in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:795-805.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23339639?tool=bestpractice.com但 HFOV 作为重度成人呼吸窘迫综合征合并难治性低氧血症患者的补救治疗,可能仍有作用,因为使用 HFOV 经常可以改善氧合。中重度急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者不推荐常规使用高频振荡通气。
传统静脉液体管理
患者的体液应该保持轻微负平衡或平衡(假如患者没有休克),目标是保持中心静脉压(CVP)<4或肺动脉闭塞压(PAOP)<8。
液体限制可以降低急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者肺微血管的压力,从而减少发生肺水肿的驱动力和允许肺水肿再吸收。一项大型临床试验显示对于没有休克的急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者,传统液体策略减少机械通气的时间,但是对病死率没有影响。[58]National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2564-2575.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16714767?tool=bestpractice.com
急性呼吸窘迫综合征网络2006年的研究显示,[25]National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Network. Pulmonary-artery versus central venous catheter to guide treatment of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:2213-2224.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16714768?tool=bestpractice.com1000例患者随机使用肺动脉导管监测肺动脉闭塞压或中心导管测量中心静脉压,两组之间病死率没有差异。然而接受肺动脉导管插入术的并发症比中心导管更多,虽然这些并发症并不严重或致命。本研究和其他研究的结论显示常规使用肺动脉导管不会改变急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的死亡率。建议使用中心导管监测急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的中心静脉压来评估液体状态。
抗生素
感染所致的急性呼吸窘迫综合征(肺炎或败血症)患者立即开始抗生素治疗非常重要,[59]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:e61-e111.https://www.thoracic.org/statements/resources/tb-opi/hap-vap-guidelines-2016.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27418577?tool=bestpractice.com在采集适当的培养标本(包括血液、痰和尿液培养物)后,应当首先针对疑似潜在感染实施经验性抗生素治疗。一旦有培养结果,可以针对找到的病原体应用抗生素,停用不必要的抗生素。没有数据支持无感染的急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者使用抗生素。
支持治疗
危重患者的标准支持治疗包括预防深静脉血栓形成、血糖控制、[61]Samama MM, Cohen AT, Darmon JY, et al; Prophylaxis in Medical Patients with Enoxaparin Study Group. A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:793-800.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199909093411103#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10477777?tool=bestpractice.com预防应激性胃肠道出血、[62]Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J, et al. A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:791-797.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199803193381203#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9504939?tool=bestpractice.com血流动力学支持以维持平均动脉压>60mmHg,患者血色素<70g/L(<7 g/dL)输红细胞,情况允许给予肠内营养治疗。[63]Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Early enteral nutrition in acutely ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:2264-2270.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11801821?tool=bestpractice.com1000例急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的大型随机试验显示呼吸窘迫综合征患者前5天低热量和全热量肠内营养的预后相似。[64]Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;307:795-803.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1355969http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22307571?tool=bestpractice.com不推荐ω-3脂肪酸和抗氧化剂的营养补充。[65]Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al; NIH NHLBI Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network of Investigators. Enteral omega-3 fatty acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidant supplementation in acute lung injury. JAMA. 2011;306:1574-1581.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1104479http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21976613?tool=bestpractice.com
不推荐应用吸入或静脉β肾上腺素能受体激动剂促进肺泡液清除和缓解肺水肿。[66]Matthay MA, Brower RG, Carson S, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of an aerosolized beta2-agonist for treatment of acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;184:561-568.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201012-2090OChttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21562125?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Gao Smith F, Perkins GD, Gates S, et al; BALTI-2 study investigators. Effect of intravenous beta-2 agonist treatment on clinical outcomes in acute respiratory distress syndrome (BALTI-2): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2012;379:229-235.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3266479/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22166903?tool=bestpractice.com无论早期或晚期应用糖皮质激素均不能改善急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者的病死率,不推荐常规使用。[68]Bernard GR, Luce JM, Sprung CL. High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:1565-1570.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3317054?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Efficacy and safety of corticosteroids for persistent acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1671-1684.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16625008?tool=bestpractice.com糖皮质激素的使用:没有足够证据来评价糖皮质激素在急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者中的应用。一项随机对照试验(RCT)发现甲基强的松龙和安慰剂组在病死率和45d急性呼吸窘迫综合征病情逆转上没有显著差异,然而另一项弱的随机对照试验发现甲基强的松龙减少ICU病死率,并且增加患者第10天出院率。虽然缺乏随机对照试验的证据,糖皮质激素有时用于顽固的急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者。低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。