自 2003 年以来,高致病性禽流感 (HPAI) H5N1 病毒株肆虐,感染过 50 多个国家/地区的家禽或野生鸟类。[29]World Organisation for Animal Health. Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (subtype H5N1) in poultry notified to the OIE: from the end of 2003 to 17 November 2015. 2015. http://www.oie.int/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Animal_Health_in_the_World/docs/pdf/graph_avian_influenza/graphs_HPAI_17_11_2015.pdf自 2003 年以来,有 16 个国家/地区报道发现人类 HPAI H5N1 病毒感染病例。在 2003-2016 年期间,共报告 856 例,死亡 452 例(死亡率约 53%)。其中包括 2016 年埃及报告的 10 例(6 例死亡)。[20]World Health Organization. Cumulative number of confirmed human cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) reported to WHO. http://www.who.int/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).http://www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/H5N1_cumulative_table_archives/en/
WHO: cumulative number of confirmed human cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) reported to WHO
2014 年 1 月,加拿大报道了一例人类感染 HPAI H5N1 的确诊病例。患者从中国去加拿大旅游,在加拿大住院、死亡。[30]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Highly pathogenic Asian avian influenza A (H5N1) virus. October 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/h5n1-virus.htm虽然没有迹象显示有在北美地区获得的感染,但该病例提示,对于重症患者,临床医生应当提高警惕,考虑是否存在流感病毒感染可能,包括 HPAI H5N1 和其他新型甲型流感病毒。同样在 2014 年,联合国粮农组织 (Food and Agriculture Organization, FAO) 的报道称,至少在 6 个国家存在家禽中 HPAI H5N1 病毒流行,包括孟加拉国、中国、埃及、印度、印尼和越南,其他国家/地区有散发的禽类疫情爆发。[31]Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Update on the continuous spread and expansion of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza: clade 2.3.2.1 in Asia (2010-2012). January 2014. http://www.fao.org/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).http://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/fb5e27b8-3fa2-5ff5-8b77-9b6e195a6f61/到目前为止,无论北美还是南美地区内的家禽都没有被检测到亚洲谱系 HPAI H5N1 病毒株,但是在美国的鸟类中发现了与人类感染不相关的、抗原性不同的 HPAI H5N1 病毒。[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) in birds and other animals. April 2017. http://www.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/h5n1-animals.htm
人类感染 HPAI H5N1 的大部分病例是散发性的,通常与直接接触(例如触摸)相关或有密切暴露于患病或死亡家禽(通常是鸡)的既往史。人类疫情和鸟类疫情的季节性变化相平行。[21]World Health Organization. Update on human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection, 2010. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2011;86:161-166.http://www.who.int/wer/2011/wer8617.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21516633?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Areechokchai D, Jiraphongsa C, Laosiritaworn Y, et al. Investigation of avian influenza (H5N1) outbreak in humans: Thailand, 2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55(suppl 1):3-6.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su5501a2.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16645574?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Dinh PN, Long HT, Tien NT, et al. Risk factors for human infection with avian influenza A H5N1, Vietnam, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1841-1847.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/12/06-0829_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17326934?tool=bestpractice.com[35]World Health Organization. Update on human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection, 2011. WHO Wkly Epidemiolog Rec. 2012;87:117-128.http://www.who.int/wer/2012/wer8713.pdf其他危险因素包括去过活禽市场,[36]Mounts AW, Kwong H, Izurieta HS, et al. Case-control study of risk factors for avian influenza A (H5N1) disease, Hong Kong, 1997. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:505-508.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10395870?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Zhou L, Liao Q, Dong L, et al. Risk factors for human illness with avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in China. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:1726-1734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19416076?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Wan XF, Dong L, Lan Y, et al. Indications that live poultry markets are a major source of human H5N1 influenza virus infection in China. J Virol. 2011;85:13432-13438.http://jvi.asm.org/content/85/24/13432.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21976646?tool=bestpractice.com与HPAI H5N1病例有长时间无保护性密切接触。[19]Writing Committee of the Second World Health Organization Consultation on Clinical Aspects of Human Infection with Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus; Abdel-Ghafar AN, Chotpitayasunondh T, Gao Z, et al. Update on avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in humans. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:261-273.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra0707279http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18199865?tool=bestpractice.com有些病例,暴露因素不明确,提示有可能存在环境暴露或未知的感染者。[39]Kandun IN, Tresnaningsih E, Purba WH, et al. Factors associated with case fatality of human H5N1 virus infections in Indonesia: a case series. Lancet. 2008;372:744-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18706688?tool=bestpractice.comHPAI H5N1病例在家庭成员中的聚集现象,表明存在潜在的遗传易感性。但是,人际传播非常罕见,[40]Horby P, Sudoyo H, Viprakasit V, et al. What is the evidence of a role for host genetics in susceptibility to influenza A/H5N1? Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138:1550-1558.https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/what-is-the-evidence-of-a-role-for-host-genetics-in-susceptibility-to-influenza-ah5n1/B63BF1EEC7D345E98B5323FBB373CAC0/core-readerhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20236573?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Human cases of avian influenza A (H5N1) in North-West Frontier Province,
Pakistan, October-November 2007. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2008;83:359-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18833663?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Aditama TY, Samaan G, Kusriastuti R, et al. Risk factors for cluster outbreaks of avian influenza A H5N1 infection, Indonesia. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1237-1244.https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/53/12/1237/403331/Risk-Factors-for-Cluster-Outbreaks-of-Avianhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22016499?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Aditama TY, Samaan G, Kusriastuti R, et al. Avian influenza H5N1 transmission in households, Indonesia. PLoS One. 2012;7:e29971.http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0029971http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22238686?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Kandun IN, Wibisono H, Sedyaningsih ER, et al. Three Indonesian clusters of H5N1 virus infection in 2005. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2186-2194.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa060930#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17124016?tool=bestpractice.com据记录,医院内传播也非常罕见。[1]Ungchusak K, Auewarakul P, Dowell SF, et al. Probable person-to-person transmission of avian influenza A (H5N1). N Engl J Med. 2005;352:333-340.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa044021#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668219?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Wang H, Feng Z, Shu Y, et al. Probable limited person-to-person transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in China. Lancet. 2008;371:1427-1434.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18400288?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Beigel JH, Farrar J, Han AM, et al. Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1374-1385.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra052211http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16192482?tool=bestpractice.com目前没有证据显示HPAI H5N1病毒的人际传播。
对雪貂的研究发现,HPAI H5N1病毒通过呼吸道飞沫可以提高传播能力,从而增加人际传播的风险。[46]Imai M, Watanabe T, Hatta M, et al. Experimental adaptation of an influenza H5 HA confers respiratory droplet transmission to a reassortant H5 HA/H1N1 virus in ferrets. Nature. 2012;486:420-428.https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v486/n7403/full/nature10831.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22722205?tool=bestpractice.com通过这个哺乳动物模型的研究,发现对几个氨基酸的替换可以增加呼吸道传播能力。其中一些氨基酸位点已见于家禽的流行毒株。[47]Neumann G, Macken CA, Karasin AI, et al. Egyptian H5N1 influenza viruses-cause for concern? PLoS Pathog. 2012;8:e1002932.http://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002932http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23166487?tool=bestpractice.com导致传播率下降的自发性突变几率非常低。[48]Russell CA, Fonville JM, Brown AE, et al. The potential for respiratory droplet-transmissible A/H5N1 influenza virus to evolve in a mammalian host. Science. 2012;336:1541-1547.http://science.sciencemag.org/content/336/6088/1541.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22723414?tool=bestpractice.com目前 HPAI H5N1 人类感染病例的流行病学变化(包括流行病学相关群集或不相关病例),可能表明病毒突变导致传播率增加,并且大流行的可能性增加。[49]Uyeki TM, Bresee JS. Detecting human-to-human transmission of avian influenza A (H5N1). Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:1969-1971.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/12/07-1153_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18258068?tool=bestpractice.com然而,2014-2015 年期间针对埃及 HPAI H5N1 病例数量大量增加的一些调查,将病例发现量增加的可能原因归结于对暴露人群的诊断性检查增加,而不是因为病毒突变。[50]Refaey S, Azziz-Baumgartner E, Amin MM, et al. Increased number of human cases of influenza virus A(H5N1) infection, Egypt, 2014-15. Emerg Infect Dis. 2015;21:2171-2173.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/21/12/15-0885_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26584397?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Le MQ, Horby P, Fox A, et al. Subclinical avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in human, Vietnam. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:1674-1677.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/19/10/13-0730_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24047510?tool=bestpractice.com
采集家庭成员和密切接触者的临床样本,以及高危暴露人群的血清学样本,进行疫情调查。结果显示,在高危暴露群组,无症状或轻微症状感染的发生概率非常低。[52]Hinjoy S, Puthavathana P, Laosiritaworn Y, et al. Low frequency of infection with avian influenza virus (H5N1) among poultry farmers, Thailand, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:499-501.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/3/07-0662_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18325273?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Vong S, Coghlan B, Mardy S, et al. Low frequency of poultry-to-human H5N1 virus transmission, southern Cambodia, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1542-1547.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/10/06-0424_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17176569?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Cai WS, Schweiger B, Buchholz U, et al. Protective measures and H5N1-seroprevalence among personnel tasked with bird collection during an outbreak of avian influenza A/H5N1 in wild birds, Ruegen, Germany, 2006. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:170.https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2334-9-170http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19835632?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Cavailler P, Chu S, Ly S, et al. Seroprevalence of anti-H5 antibody in rural Cambodia, 2007. J Clin Virol. 2010;48:123-126.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20356781?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Ceyhan M, Yildirim I, Ferraris O, et al. Serosurveillance study on transmission of H5N1 virus during a 2006 avian influenza epidemic. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138:1274-1280.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20092669?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Robert M, Holle du RB, Setiawaty V, et al. Seroprevalence of avian influenza A/H5N1 among poultry farmers in rural Indonesia, 2007. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2010;41:1095-1103.http://www.tm.mahidol.ac.th/seameo/2010-41-5/09-4850.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21073030?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Zhang R, Rong X, Pan W, et al. Determination of serum neutralization antibodies against seasonal influenza A strain H3N2 and the emerging strains 2009 H1N1 and avian H5N1. Scand J Infect Dis. 2011;43:216-220.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21142624?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Kwon D, Lee JY, Choi W, et al. Avian influenza A (H5N1) virus antibodies in poultry cullers, South Korea, 2003-2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18:986-988.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/6/11-1631_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22607722?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Huo X, Zu R, Qi X, et al. Seroprevalence of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus among poultry workers in Jiangsu province, China: an observational study. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:93.https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2334-12-93http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22512873?tool=bestpractice.com[61]van Kerkhove MD, Mumford E, Mounts AW, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1): pathways of exposure at the animal-human interface, a systematic review. PLoS One. 2011;6:e14582.http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0014582http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21283678?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Uyeki TM, Nguyen DC, Rowe T, et al. Seroprevalence of antibodies to avian influenza A (H5) and A (H9) viruses among market poultry workers, Hanoi, Vietnam, 2001. PLoS One. 2012;7:e43948.http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0043948http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22928049?tool=bestpractice.com不过,一项评估一种试验性血清学检测方法的研究显示,在越南可能存在无症状感染的证据。[63]Powell TJ, Fox A, Peng Y, et al. Identification of H5N1-specific T-cell responses in a high-risk cohort in Vietnam indicates the existence of potential asymptomatic infections. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:20-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080094?tool=bestpractice.com另有一项调查报告了越南的一例无症状 HPAI H5N1 病毒感染。[51]Le MQ, Horby P, Fox A, et al. Subclinical avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in human, Vietnam. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:1674-1677.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/19/10/13-0730_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24047510?tool=bestpractice.com文献报道,埃及、土耳其、印度尼西亚、孟加拉国和越南,有临床表现轻微的儿童病例。有研究显示,确诊病例从发病到死亡平均只有5天。[64]World Health Organization. Update: WHO-confirmed human cases of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection, November 2003-May 2008. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2008;83:415-420.http://www.who.int/wer/2008/wer8346.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19009716?tool=bestpractice.com人感染HPAI H5N1病例大部分是既往体健的儿童和年轻人。患者的平均年龄大约是20岁,年龄范围从1岁到81岁。[64]World Health Organization. Update: WHO-confirmed human cases of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection, November 2003-May 2008. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2008;83:415-420.http://www.who.int/wer/2008/wer8346.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19009716?tool=bestpractice.com男女病例的所占比例基本相同;不过女性的病死率较高,这可能与许多不同的流行病学因素相关,例如未及时就诊、患者年龄以及医师的检查方式。[21]World Health Organization. Update on human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection, 2010. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2011;86:161-166.http://www.who.int/wer/2011/wer8617.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21516633?tool=bestpractice.com从 2003 年到 2010 年,20 岁以下患者的死亡风险显著低于年龄超过 20 岁的患者(病死率:52% vs 66%)。[21]World Health Organization. Update on human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection, 2010. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2011;86:161-166.http://www.who.int/wer/2011/wer8617.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21516633?tool=bestpractice.com死亡率与延迟诊断、延迟住院治疗相关。[21]World Health Organization. Update on human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection, 2010. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2011;86:161-166.http://www.who.int/wer/2011/wer8617.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21516633?tool=bestpractice.com一项研究称,HPAI H5N1 儿童患者有流涕的症状提示预后较好。[27]Oner AF, Dogan N, Gasimov V, et al. H5N1 avian influenza in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:26-32.https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/55/1/26/317646/H5N1-Avian-Influenza-in-Childrenhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22423125?tool=bestpractice.com
其他禽流感病毒(如,H7、H9 H10病毒)感染人类后,严重程度从较轻的临床症状(如结膜炎、流感样症状)到死亡。[3]Skowronski DM, Tweed SA, Petric M, et al. Human illness and isolation of low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus of the H7N3 subtype in British Columbia, Canada. J Infect Dis. 2006;193:899-900.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16479527?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Peiris M, Yuen KY, Leung CW, et al. Human infection with influenza H9N2. Lancet. 1999;354:916-917.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10489954?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Uyeki TM, Chong YH, Katz JM, et al. Lack of evidence for human-to-human transmission of avian influenza A (H9N2) viruses in Hong Kong, China 1999. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:154-159.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/8/2/01-0148_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11897066?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Eurosurveillance editorial team. Avian influenza A/(H7N2) outbreak in the United Kingdom. Euro Surveill. 2007;12:pii=3206.http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=3206http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17868584?tool=bestpractice.com[17]World Health Organization. Antigenic and genetic characteristics of influenza A(H5N1) and influenza A(H9N2) viruses and candidate vaccine viruses developed for potential use in human vaccines: February 2010. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2010;85:100-107.http://www.who.int/wer/2010/wer8511.pdf[10]Tweed SA, Skowronski DM, David ST, et al. Human illness from avian influenza H7N3, British Columbia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:2196-2199.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/10/12/04-0961_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15663860?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Butt KM, Smith GJ, Chen H, et al. Human infection with an avian H9N2 influenza A virus in Hong Kong in 2003. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:5760-5767.http://jcm.asm.org/content/43/11/5760.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16272514?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Bos ME, Te Beest DE, van Boven M, et al. High probability of avian influenza virus (H7N7) transmission from poultry to humans active in disease control on infected farms. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1390-1396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20331380?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Koopmans M, Wilbrink B, Conyn M, et al. Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. Lancet. 2004;363:587-593.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14987882?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: influenza activity - United States and worldwide, 2003-04 season, and composition of the 2004-05 influenza vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004;53:547-552.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5325a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15229411?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Arzey GG, Kirkland PD, Arzey KE, et al. Influenza virus A (H10N7) in chickens and poultry abattoir workers, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18:814-816.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/5/11-1852_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22516302?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Wei SH, Yang JR, Wu HS, et al. Human infection with avian influenza A H6N1 virus: an epidemiological analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2013;1:771-778.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24461756?tool=bestpractice.com甲型禽流感 (H7N9) 于 2013 年 3 月首次在中国发现。自 2016 年 10 月以来,中国报告人类感染增加。在第 5 波人类感染中,截至 2017 年 4 月 3 日,已报告 549 例,是迄今为止规模最大的一次 H7N9 爆发。在以前的流行中,病死率约为 40%。[71]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Asian lineage avian influenza A (H7N9) virus. May 2017. https://www.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/h7n9-virus.htm[72]World Health Organization. Avian influenza A(H7N9) virus. 2017. http://www.who.int/ (last accessed 4 May 2017).http://www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/influenza_h7n9/en/