可以通过确定易于呕吐的患者、手术前胃内容物最少化、催吐性刺激最少化和避免保护性反射因过度镇静完全丧失,防止麻醉相关的胃内容物误吸。[19]Vaughan GG, Grycko RJ, Montgomery MT. The prevention and treatment of aspiration of vomitus during pharmacosedation and general anesthesia. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1992;50:874-879.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1634979?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,在急诊手术环境下,此时使用预防性策略的机会可能无法获得,无数据表明误吸危险因缺少禁食而增加。[67]Thorpe RJ, Benger J. Pre-procedural fasting in emergency sedation. Emerg Med J. 2010;27:254-261.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20385672?tool=bestpractice.com 围手术期使用H2受体阻滞剂可能保持胃内pH > 2.5,从而在预防因误吸所致肺损伤方面提供理论性益处。[68]Paranjothy S, Griffiths JD, Broughton HK, et al. Interventions at caesarean section for reducing the risk of aspiration pneumonitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(2):CD004943.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004943.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24497372?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Gyte GM, Richens Y. Routine prophylactic drugs in normal labour for reducing gastric aspiration and its effects. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(3):CD005298.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD005298/frame.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16856089?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Clark K, Lam LT, Gibson S, et al. The effect of ranitidine versus proton pump inhibitors on gastric secretions: a meta-analysis of randomised control trials. Anaesthesia. 2009;64:652-657.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2008.05861.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19453319?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,无数据显示采用这种方法时结局改善。一项比较 H2 阻滞剂与质子泵抑制剂 (PPI) 的有效性的荟萃分析得出结论:术前单次口服剂量的 H2 阻滞剂比 PPI 更有效。然而,当术前作为 2 个口服剂量给予或通过静脉内途径给予时,两种途径用药同等有效。[71]Puig I, Calzado S, Suárez D, Sánchez-Delgado J, López S, Calvet X. Meta-analysis: comparative efficacy of H2-receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors for reducing aspiration risk during anaesthesia depending on the administration route and schedule. Pharmacol Res. 2012;65:480-490.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22289674?tool=bestpractice.com 需要麻醉怀孕患者应当接受术前 H2 阻滞剂以提高胃 pH 值并接受环状软骨加压法早期插管。[20]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Maternal collapse in pregnancy and the puerperium. Green-top Guideline No. 56. 2011. http://www.rcog.org.uk (last accessed 12 January 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_56.pdf 应当在尝试喂养之前仔细评价认为存在任何误吸危险因素的患者。 这包括评估皮质功能、延髓肌咽反射和咳嗽反射的神经系统评价。 语言病理学家应当在不明确的病例中评价吞咽。[28]Paintal HS, Kuschner WG. Aspiration syndromes: 10 clinical pearls every physician should know. Int J Clin Pract. 2007;61:846-852.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17493092?tool=bestpractice.com 对于肺误吸风险无明显增加的患者,不推荐术前常规使用组胺 2 受体拮抗剂、质子泵抑制剂 (PPI)、制酸剂、止吐剂或抗胆碱能药物。[33]Practice guidelines for preoperative fasting and the use of pharmacologic agents to reduce the risk of pulmonary aspiration: Application to healthy patients undergoing elective procedures: An updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Preoperative Fasting and the Use of Pharmacologic Agents to Reduce the Risk of Pulmonary Aspiration. Anesthesiology. 2017 Mar;126(3):376-393.http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=2596245http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28045707?tool=bestpractice.com
存在误吸危险因素的已住院患者应当使床头抬高30°到45°。[72]van Nieuwenhoven CA, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C, van Tiel FH, et al. Feasibility and effects of the semirecumbent position to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized study. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:396-402.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16424720?tool=bestpractice.com 其他可能有用的防止危重患者误吸的措施包括用消毒液清洁口腔;吞咽困难患者喂养时取下颌压低体位;用经皮内镜胃造瘘管或经皮内镜空肠造瘘管喂养长期虚弱患者;对老年患者手工喂养而非插入饲管;喂养柔软切碎的膳食和粘稠的液体;使用血管紧张素转化酶 (ACE) 抑制剂和辣椒碱使咽反射敏感;[73]El Solh AA, Saliba R. Pharmacologic prevention of aspiration pneumonia: a systematic review. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2007;5:352-362.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18179994?tool=bestpractice.com 抽吸气管插管患者声门下分泌物;使用药物抑制胃酸;尽量减少使用镇静药物;监测胃残余量作为误吸风险的一个标志物;并放置幽门后饲管。[19]Vaughan GG, Grycko RJ, Montgomery MT. The prevention and treatment of aspiration of vomitus during pharmacosedation and general anesthesia. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1992;50:874-879.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1634979?tool=bestpractice.com 存在≥2 种危险因素或者有误吸记录、持续性喂养不耐受,或这两种情况都存在的患者可以接受促动力药物治疗和/或将饲管管端置于 Treitz 韧带(十二指肠悬韧带)处或以下进行喂养。[24]Mizock BA. Risk of aspiration in patients on enteral nutrition: frequency, relevance, relation to pneumonia, risk factors, and strategies for risk reduction. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2007;9:338-344.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17883984?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Wang D, Zheng SQ, Chen XC, et al. Comparisons between small intestinal and gastric feeding in severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Neurosurg. 2015;123:1194-1201.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26024007?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Warusevitane A, Karunatilake D, Sim J, et al. Safety and effect of metoclopramide to prevent pneumonia in patients with stroke fed via nasogastric tubes trial. Stroke. 2015;46:454-460.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/46/2/454.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25516196?tool=bestpractice.com 相对较小的单中心临床试验提示,使用甲氧氯普胺[75]Warusevitane A, Karunatilake D, Sim J, et al. Safety and effect of metoclopramide to prevent pneumonia in patients with stroke fed via nasogastric tubes trial. Stroke. 2015;46:454-460.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/46/2/454.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25516196?tool=bestpractice.com 和幽门后喂养均可减少肺炎。[74]Wang D, Zheng SQ, Chen XC, et al. Comparisons between small intestinal and gastric feeding in severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Neurosurg. 2015;123:1194-1201.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26024007?tool=bestpractice.com 这些发现有待更大型随机对照研究证实。 改善口腔卫生也可以降低吸入性肺炎风险。[76]Pace CC, McCullough GH. The association between oral microorganisms and aspiration pneumonia in the institutionalized elderly: review and recommendations. Dysphagia. 2010;25:307-322.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20824288?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Management of patients with stroke: identification and management of dysphagia - a national clinical guideline. June 2010. http://www.sign.ac.uk (last accessed 12 January 2017).http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign119.pdf
当使用小剂量硫酸钡时,钡餐检查期间的体位技术可以降低或消除误吸风险。[77]Rasley A, Logemann JA, Kahrilas PJ, et al. Prevention of barium aspiration during videofluoroscopic swallowing studies: value of change in posture. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1993;160:1005-1009.http://www.ajronline.org/doi/pdf/10.2214/ajr.160.5.8470567http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8470567?tool=bestpractice.com
应当使用跨学科方案管理吞咽已经受损的卒中患者或其他疾病患者。[54]Australian and New Zealand Society for Geriatric Medicine. Australian and New Zealand Society for Geriatric Medicine. Position statement - dysphagia and aspiration in older people. Australas J Ageing. 2011;30:98-103.http://www.anzsgm.org/posstate.asphttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21672120?tool=bestpractice.com 改良的饮食(花蜜样浓稠的液体替代稀薄液体)可能更易吞咽。 这些患者可以从吞咽康复训练中获益,包括以直立姿势训练、收下巴和缓慢吞咽。
虽然在大多数患者中吞咽功能可以在卒中的 6 月内恢复,管饲喂养在急性期可能适用。 在一项三方随机对照试验——喂养或日常饮食(FOOD)研究[78]Dennis MS, Lewis SC, Warlow C; FOOD Trial Collaboration. Routine oral nutritional supplementation for stroke patients in hospital (FOOD): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;365:755-763.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15733716?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Dennis MS, Lewis SC, Warlow C; FOOD Trial Collaboration. Effect of timing and method of enteral tube feeding for dysphagic stroke patients (FOOD): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;365:764-772.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15733717?tool=bestpractice.com 中发现,未在卒中患者中发现来自营养补充物的明显益处。前三周内的早期营养降低死亡率。在这项研究中,与鼻胃管相比时,经皮内镜胃造瘘 (PEG) 管与 6 个月时较高的死亡率或不良结局相关。最佳饲管类型方面各方数据并不一致。在小型单中心研究中已经证实,幽门后放置饲管可降低肺炎风险,但在其他结局方面未证明存在差异,例如机械通气持续时间、呕吐或死亡率。[80]Park RH, Allison MC, Lang J, et al. Randomised comparison of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and nasogastric tube feeding in patients with persisting neurological dysphagia. BMJ. 1992;304:1406-1409.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1882203/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1628013?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Strong RM, Condon SC, Solinger MR, et al. Equal aspiration rates from postpylorus and intragastric-placed small-bore nasoenteric feeding tubes: a randomized, prospective study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1992;16:59-63.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1738222?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Spain DA, DeWeese RC, Reynolds MA, et al. Transpyloric passage of feeding tubes in patients with head injuries does not decrease complications. J Trauma. 1995;39:1100-1102.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7500401?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Wang D, Zheng SQ, Chen XC, et al. Comparisons between small intestinal and gastric feeding in severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Neurosurg. 2015;123:1194-1201.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26024007?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Alkhawaja S, Martin C, Butler RJ, et al. Post-pyloric versus gastric tube feeding for preventing pneumonia and improving nutritional outcomes in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD008875.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008875.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26241698?tool=bestpractice.com