20 世纪 90 年代初期,系统性评估了淋巴组织中 HIV 的复制,旨在了解 HIV 感染的病理生理学后果。这些研究为淋巴结、脾和胸腺内的各种结构的连续性破坏提供了证据,并证实病毒在复制过程中会引起胸腺受累。据推测,多数 T 细胞会在病毒直接感染后受到破坏。此外,凋亡被认为导致了 CD4+ 和 CD8+ 细胞的减少。[15]Lifson JD, Reyes GR, McGrath MS, et al. AIDS retrovirus induced cytopathology: giant cell formation and involvement of CD4 antigen. Science. 1986 May 30;232(4754):1123-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3010463?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Ameisen JC, Capron A. Cell dysfunction and depletion in AIDS: the programmed cell death hypothesis. Immunol Today. 1991 Apr;12(4):102-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1676268?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Ameisen JC, Estaquier J, Idziorek T. From AIDS to parasite infection: pathogen-mediated subversion of programmed cell death as a mechanism for immune dysregulation. Immunol Rev. 1994 Dec;142:9-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7698802?tool=bestpractice.com
在全球范围内,围产期传播是儿童 HIV 感染最常见的传播方式。[18]Mofenson LM. Pregnancy and perinatal transmission of HIV infection. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, et al, eds. Sexually transmitted diseases. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008:1659-93. HIV 传播可发生于整个妊娠、分娩以及产后母乳喂养期间。若常规采取奶瓶喂养,约 1/3 的围产期传播发生在宫内,其余则发生在分娩期间。疾病进展或临床免疫缺陷、高 HIV 病毒载量、妊娠期性传播感染以及胎膜破裂时间过长等产科因素均与母婴传播增加相关。[19]Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, et al; Women and Infants' Transmission Study Group. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1-infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002 Apr 15;29(5):484-94.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11981365?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Magder LS, Mofenson L, Paul ME, et al. Risk factors for in utero and intrapartum transmission of HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005 Jan 1;38(1):87-95.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15608531?tool=bestpractice.com 在妊娠期间,胎盘是母体循环和胎儿循环间重要的物理及免疫屏障。胎盘也被认为可防护 HIV-1 感染在子宫内的传播。[21]De Cock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, et al. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. JAMA. 2000 Mar 1;283(9):1175-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10703780?tool=bestpractice.com 宫内传播的确切机制尚不清楚,但一些破坏胎盘完整性的因素(例如绒毛膜羊膜炎)可能与此有关。[22]Wabwire-Mangen F, Gray RH, Mmiro FA, et al. Placental membrane inflammation and risks of maternal-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999 Dec 1;22(4):379-85.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10634200?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Van Dyke RB, Korber BT, Popek E, et al. The Ariel Project: a prospective cohort study of maternal-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the era of maternal antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 1999 Feb;179(2):319-28. [Erratum in: J Infect Dis. 1999 Mar;179(3):754.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9878014?tool=bestpractice.com 一些研究指出病毒的特性(例如病毒亚型或细胞嗜性)和宿主的遗传因素(例如 HLA 或趋化因子受体的基因型)会影响病毒的宫内传播。[24]Farquhar C, Rowland-Jones S, Mbori-Ngacha D, et al. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B*18 and protection against mother-to-child HIV type 1 transmission. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2004 Jul;20(7):692-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15307911?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Kostrikis LG, Neumann AU, Thomson B, et al. A polymorphism in the regulatory region of the CC-chemokine receptor 5 gene influences perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 to African-American infants. J Virol. 1999 Dec;73(12):10264-71.http://jvi.asm.org/content/73/12/10264.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10559343?tool=bestpractice.com[26]LaRussa P, Magder LS, Pitt J, et al; Women and Infants Transmission Study. Association of HIV-1 viral phenotype in the MT-2 assay with perinatal HIV transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002 May 1;30(1):88-94.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12048368?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Renjifo B, Gilbert P, Chaplin B, et al; Tanzanian Vitamin and HIV Study Group. Preferential in-utero transmission of HIV-1 subtype C as compared to HIV-1 subtype A or D. AIDS. 2004 Aug 20;18(12):1629-36.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15280773?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Winchester R, Pitt J, Charurat M, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: strong association with certain maternal HLA-B alleles independent of viral load implicates innate immune mechanisms. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004 Jun 1;36(2):659-70.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15167284?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Yang C, Li M, Newman RD, et al. Genetic diversity of HIV-1 in western Kenya: subtype-specific differences in mother-to-child transmission. AIDS. 2003 Jul 25;17(11):1667-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12853749?tool=bestpractice.com 多数宫内传播据信出现于妊娠晚期。[30]Rouzioux C, Costagliola D, Burgard M, et al. Estimated timing of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) transmission by use of a Markov model. The HIV Infection in Newborns French Collaborative Study Group. Am J Epidemiol. 1995 Dec 15;142(12):1330-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7503054?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, et al. Understanding the timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. JAMA. 2001 Feb 14;285(6):709-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11176886?tool=bestpractice.com 产时传播的发生机制为:游离或与细胞结合的病毒通过母胎输血直接进入婴儿体循环。母胎输血可发生于分娩期间子宫收缩时;或者分娩时婴儿吞咽感染 HIV 的生殖道体液,然后病毒穿过婴儿的胃肠道粘膜后,侵入粘膜下淋巴细胞,随后出现全身性播散。[18]Mofenson LM. Pregnancy and perinatal transmission of HIV infection. In: Holmes KK, Sparling PF, Stamm WE, et al, eds. Sexually transmitted diseases. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008:1659-93. 母乳含有高水平的 HIV 病毒,[32]Tersmette M, Gruters RA, de Wolf F, et al. Evidence for a role of virulent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) variants in the pathogenesis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: studies on sequential HIV isolates. J Virol. 1989 May;63(5):2118-25.http://jvi.asm.org/content/63/5/2118.full.pdf+htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2564898?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Schwartz S, Felber BK, Fenyo EM, et al. Rapidly and slowly replicating human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates can be distinguished according to target-cell tropism in T-cell and monocyte cell lines. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Sep;86(18):7200-3.http://www.pnas.org/content/86/18/7200.full.pdf+htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2789383?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Fenyo EM, Albert J, Asjo B. Replicative capacity, cytopathic effect and cell tropism of HIV. AIDS. 1989;3 (suppl 1):S5-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2514754?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Shapiro RL, Hughes MD, Ogwu A, et al. Antiretroviral regimens in pregnancy and breast-feeding in Botswana. N Engl J Med. 2010 Jun 17;362(24):2282-94.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20554983?tool=bestpractice.com 并且传播可发生于哺乳期的任一时间点。高母体病毒载量(血浆和母乳中)、母乳免疫学因素、母体乳房病变(例如乳腺炎、乳头皲裂或出血、脓肿)和母体低 CD4 计数与通过母乳喂养传播的风险增加相关。念珠菌病等婴儿胃肠道疾病可破坏黏膜完整性,并促进病毒传播。[36]Fowler MG, Newell ML. Breast-feeding and HIV-1 transmission in resource-limited settings. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002 Jun 1;30(2):230-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12045686?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Leroy V, Karon JM, Alioum A, et al; West Africa PMTCT Study Group. Twenty-four month efficacy of a maternal short-course zidovudine regimen to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in West Africa. AIDS. 2002 Mar 8;16(4):631-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11873008?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Wiktor SZ, Ekpini E, Karon JM, et al. Short-course oral zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999 Mar 6;353(9155):781-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10459958?tool=bestpractice.com[39]John-Stewart G, Mbori-Ngacha D, Ekpini R, et al; Ghent IAS Working Group on HIV in Women and Children. Breast-feeding and transmission of HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004 Feb 1;35(2):196-202.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14722454?tool=bestpractice.com[40]World Health Organization. Updates on HIV and infant feeding: guideline. 2016 [internet publication].http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/hiv-infant-feeding-2016/en/