乳腺癌通常表现为无痛性乳房肿块,尤其是早期发现者。支持诊断的关键因素包括:
肿块增大(乳腺纤维囊性病的大小可能随月经周期波动,但乳腺癌大小无论月经周期均逐渐增大)
皮肤肥厚或变色(更有可能与局部晚期或炎性乳腺癌有关)
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 桔皮状皮肤(图片)由 Amal Melhem-Bertrandt 医生提供;获准使用 [Citation ends].
腋窝淋巴结病
乳头皱缩或脱皮(可能与乳房佩吉特病有关)
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 乳头内陷和不对称(图片)由 Amal Melhem-Bertrandt 医生提供;获准使用 [Citation ends].
乳头溢液。
虽然体格检查结果是诊断的关键因素,但在缺乏可触及的肿块时,许多乳腺癌是基于乳腺 X 线异常作出诊断的(如线性或多形性微钙化)。[57]Hortobagyi GN, Esserman L, Buchholz TA. Cancer medicine, 7th ed. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker; 2006.
体格检查
首先对患者进行坐姿检查,观察皮肤颜色、轮廓、凹陷及不对称等改变。通过放松和内收手臂评估腋窝。评估锁骨上和锁骨下的盆腔淋巴结,以确定淋巴结疾病的范围和程度。
然而,淋巴结的临床评估通常不准确:美国家乳腺与肠道外科辅助治疗研究组(NSABP) 的研究发现,在已通过临床检查确定淋巴结阴性的一组乳腺癌患者中,有38%经病理检查发现淋巴结转移。[58]Fisher ER, Gregorio RM, Fisher B, et al. The pathology of invasive breast cancer. A syllabus derived from findings of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast Project (protocol no. 4). Cancer. 1975;36:1-85.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1097-0142(197507)36:1%3C1::AID-CNCR2820360102%3E3.0.CO;2-4/pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/173455?tool=bestpractice.com相反,体格检查确定淋巴结转移的患者中,有25%经病理检查并未发现淋巴结转移的证据。
然后进行仰卧检查,患者手臂抬起置于头上将乳房组织完全暴露于胸壁,进而方便整个乳房和淋巴结区域的触诊。触诊时应包括乳头及其下方的组织。
应对乳房和盆腔淋巴结进行系统的体格检查,防止出现遗漏。
影像学
建议以乳房 X 射线照片对乳腺癌进行初步筛查和诊断,因其更经济,可被经验丰富的乳房X线摄影人员准确解读,并拥有足够的敏感性和特异性。[59]American College of Radiology. ACR practice parameter for the performance of screening and diagnostic mammography. 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PGTS/guidelines/Screening_Mammography.pdf[60]American College of Radiology. ACR practice parameter for the imaging management of DCIS and invasive breast carcinoma. 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PGTS/guidelines/DCIS_Invasive_Breast_Carcinoma.pdf许多欧洲国家采用双人阅读的标准,即由 2 名阅片者审查乳房 X 射线照片。双人阅读可潜在增加癌症检出率,并降低假阳性率。为尽量消除 2 名阅片者的需要,计算机辅助检测系统辅助评估数字化乳房 X 射线照片的技术得到了发展。证据表明其可替代双阅读,并提高阅片者筛查乳房 X 射线照片时的检出率。[61]Gilbert FJ, Astley SM, Gillan MG, et al. Single reading with computer-aided detection for screening mammography. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1675-1684.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0803545#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18832239?tool=bestpractice.com研究表明超声因其特异性可作为乳房 X 射线照片的辅助(通过区分囊肿和坚硬的肿块)检查,即评估乳腺肿块(通过乳房 X 射线照片不充分时),并监测新辅助化疗期间的肿瘤反应。[60]American College of Radiology. ACR practice parameter for the imaging management of DCIS and invasive breast carcinoma. 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PGTS/guidelines/DCIS_Invasive_Breast_Carcinoma.pdf[62]Flobbe K, Bosch AM, Kessels AG, et al. The additional diagnostic value of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of breast cancer. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1194-1199.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/215601http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12767956?tool=bestpractice.com
相比之下,乳房 MRI 比乳房 X 射线照片更为敏感,但其特异性有限。因此,仅建议具有≥1 个以下特点的高危患者实施乳房 MRI:[14]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Familial breast cancer: classification, care and managing breast cancer and related risks in people with a family history of breast cancer. August 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg164[63]American College of Radiology. ACR practice parameter for the performance of contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the breast. 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PGTS/guidelines/MRI_Breast.pdf[64]Saslow D, Boetes C, Burke W, et al. American Cancer Society guidelines for breast screening with MRI as an adjunct to mammography. CA Cancer J Clin. 2007;57:75-89.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17392385?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Lee CH, Dershaw DD, Kopans D, et al. Breast cancer screening with imaging: recommendations from the Society of Breast Imaging and the ACR on the use of mammography, breast MRI, breast ultrasound, and other technologies for the detection of clinically occult breast cancer. J Am Coll Radiol. 2010;7:18-27.http://www.jacr.org/article/S1546-1440%2809%2900480-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20129267?tool=bestpractice.com
尽管 MRI 的敏感性增加,但行广泛局部切除的原发性乳腺癌女性后,其再次手术率并未下降。[66]Turnbull L, Brown S, Harvey I, et al. Comparative effectiveness of MRI in breast cancer (COMICE) trial: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;375:563-571.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20159292?tool=bestpractice.com
层析 X 射线摄影合成是三维成像技术,其可与数字乳房 X 射线照片同步进行。2011 年,层析 X 射线摄影合成,结合标准乳房 X 线数字摄影术,被美国食品药品监督管理局 (FDA) 批准用于乳腺癌筛查。将乳房层析 X 射线摄影合成添加到筛查乳房 X 线照相可使假阳性降低 15%~30%,而使癌症检出率增加 30%~50%。[67]National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Clinical practice guidelines in oncology: breast cancer screening and diagnosis. 2016. http://www.nccn.org/ (last accessed 27 October 2016).https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp#detection[68]Skaane P, Bandos AI, Gullien R, et al. Comparison of digital mammography alone and digital mammography plus tomosynthesis in a population-based screening program. Radiology. 2013;267:47-56.http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.12121373http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23297332?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Ciatto S, Houssami N, Bernardi D, et al. Integration of 3D digital mammography with tomosynthesis for population breast-cancer screening (STORM): a prospective comparison study. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:583-589.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23623721?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Friedewald SM, Rafferty EA, Rose SL, et al. Breast cancer screening using tomosynthesis in combination with digital mammography. JAMA. 2014;311:2499-2507.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1883018http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25058084?tool=bestpractice.com有必要进一步研究以确定这一新颖技术在乳腺癌筛查中的作用。
新诊断乳腺癌患者的转移性病灶检查可变,且常因症状而定。对于晚期疾病女性 (T3 N1, IIIA),可考虑进一步影像学检查,如放射性骨扫描、腹部±骨盆 CT,以及胸部影像学。PET 扫描在乳腺癌诊断和初期的作用仍不确定。对于缺乏症状的早期乳腺癌,并未提示常规系统性分期。[71]National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: breast cancer. 2016. http://www.nccn.org/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp#site
活检
经验丰富的操作员执行时,细针穿刺活检 (FNA) 的敏感性和特异性分别为 98% 和 97%。[72]Ljung BM, Drejet A, Chiampi N, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of fine-needle aspiration biopsy is determined by physician training in sampling technique. Cancer. 2001;93:263-268.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.9040/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11507700?tool=bestpractice.com而缺乏经验的临床医生执行时,这些数值明显下降。FNA 可用于快速获得恶性肿瘤诊断,而且当计划立即进行手术时,其可能是诊断所需的唯一测试。然而,粗针穿刺活检通常是乳房恶性肿瘤诊断的首选方法,因为粗针穿刺活检可区分浸润前和浸润性疾病,其很少与采样不足有关,而且可评估受体状态。
当诊断为浸润性癌症时,应进行雌激素受体 (OR)、孕激素受体 (PR) 及 HER2 受体的状态确定。[73]Hammond ME, Hayes DF, Dowsett M, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists guideline recommendations for immunohistochemical testing of estrogen and progesterone receptors in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:2784-2795. [Erratum in: J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:3543.]http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2009.25.6529http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20404251?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Wolff AC, Hammond ME, Hicks DG, et al; American Society of Clinical Oncology; College of American Pathologists. Recommendations for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 testing in breast cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:3997-4013.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/jco.2013.50.9984http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101045?tool=bestpractice.com
采用免疫组织化学 (IHC) 测定 OR 和 PR 状态。美国临床肿瘤学会和美国病理学家学会建议,如果样本中至少有 1% 的阳性肿瘤细胞核,应考虑 OR 和 PR 试验阳性。[73]Hammond ME, Hayes DF, Dowsett M, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists guideline recommendations for immunohistochemical testing of estrogen and progesterone receptors in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:2784-2795. [Erratum in: J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:3543.]http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2009.25.6529http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20404251?tool=bestpractice.com
IHC 可检测蛋白质,结合荧光原位杂交 (ISH) 技术可检测基因扩增,应用于检测 HER2。[74]Wolff AC, Hammond ME, Hicks DG, et al; American Society of Clinical Oncology; College of American Pathologists. Recommendations for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 testing in breast cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:3997-4013.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/jco.2013.50.9984http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101045?tool=bestpractice.com
应至少对乳腺癌患者的一个肿瘤样本(早期或转移性疾病)进行HER2 蛋白质表达(IHC 试验)或 HER2 基因表达(ISH 试验)的检测,而且应进行HER2验证试验,采用 ISH 以确认 IHC 结果。IHC 评分范围为 0~+3,由染色强度和连续均匀的阳性肿瘤细胞的百分比 (>10%) 所定。结合 ISH,单探头(测量 HER2 基因拷贝数/细胞的平均数量)或双探头方法(测量 HER2/CEP17 的比率)均可用于确定阳性。[74]Wolff AC, Hammond ME, Hicks DG, et al; American Society of Clinical Oncology; College of American Pathologists. Recommendations for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 testing in breast cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:3997-4013.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/jco.2013.50.9984http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101045?tool=bestpractice.com无论 HER2/CEP17 的比率,HER2 基因拷贝数/细胞的平均数量≥6.0 的肿瘤被认为是 HER2 阳性(不同于先前建议)。如果每个细胞 HER2 平均拷贝数<6.0,且 HER2/CEP17 的比率≥2.0 时,则肿瘤被认为是 HER2 阳性。
使用这种方法,且假设病理学家尚未观察到明显的组织病理学不一致,则肿瘤被认为是:
HER2 阴性,如果采用单探头 ISH 或双探头 ISH 时肿瘤样本中进行的单项测试(或所有测试)显示 (a) IHC 1 + 阴性或 IHC 0 阴性或 (b) ISH 阴性。[74]Wolff AC, Hammond ME, Hicks DG, et al; American Society of Clinical Oncology; College of American Pathologists. Recommendations for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 testing in breast cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology/College of American Pathologists clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:3997-4013.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/jco.2013.50.9984http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101045?tool=bestpractice.com
临床医生可能会使用基因表达分析(例如 Oncotype DX®)来指导关于辅助化疗的决策。[75]Goncalves R, Bose R. Using multigene tests to select treatment for early-stage breast cancer. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2013;11:174-182.http://www.jnccn.org/content/11/2/174.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23411384?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Harbeck N, Sotlar K, Wuerstlein R, et al. Molecular and protein markers for clinical decision making in breast cancer: today and tomorrow. Cancer Treat Rev. 2014;40:434-444.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24138841?tool=bestpractice.com[77]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Gene expression profiling and expanded immunohistochemistry tests for guiding adjuvant chemotherapy decisions in early breast cancer management: MammaPrint, Oncotype DX, IHC4 and Mammostrat. September 2013. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 27 October 2016).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/dg10[78]Harris LN, Ismailia N, McShane LM, et al; American Society of Clinical Oncology. Use of biomarkers to guide decisions on adjuvant systemic therapy for women with early-stage invasive breast cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2016;34:1134-1150.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2015.65.2289http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26858339?tool=bestpractice.comOncotype DX® 分析是一种基于逆转录-聚合酶链反应 (PCR) 的多基因分析,评估患者石蜡包埋肿瘤切片内 21 种前瞻性选择基因的表达。[79]Paik S, Shak S, Tang G, et al. A multigene assay to predict recurrence of tamoxifen-treated, node-negative breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:2817-2826.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa041588#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15591335?tool=bestpractice.com基于该表达,可计算出低、中或高复发评分。对于激素受体阳性的早期乳腺癌患者,复发评分可用于确定激素疗法基础上加用化疗的相对益处。[75]Goncalves R, Bose R. Using multigene tests to select treatment for early-stage breast cancer. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2013;11:174-182.http://www.jnccn.org/content/11/2/174.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23411384?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Harbeck N, Sotlar K, Wuerstlein R, et al. Molecular and protein markers for clinical decision making in breast cancer: today and tomorrow. Cancer Treat Rev. 2014;40:434-444.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24138841?tool=bestpractice.com[77]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Gene expression profiling and expanded immunohistochemistry tests for guiding adjuvant chemotherapy decisions in early breast cancer management: MammaPrint, Oncotype DX, IHC4 and Mammostrat. September 2013. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 27 October 2016).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/dg10通常情况下,该检测的使用仅限于疾病呈淋巴结阴性的患者。
提供个体化治疗选择试验 (Trial Assigning Individualized Options for Treatment, TAILORx) 表明,对于 5 年生存率高达 99%、无远处转移且可通过单纯辅助内分泌疗法进行治疗的患者,可选择 21 基因复发评分。[80]Sparano JA, Gray RJ, Makower DF, et al. Prospective validation of a 21-gene expression assay in breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:2005-2014.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1510764#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26412349?tool=bestpractice.com随机分配到化疗与内分泌治疗联合治疗组或单纯内分泌治疗组的中等风险患者(通过 21 基因复发分析确定)的结果尚未出来。
70 基因分析 MammaPrint® 无法用于确定无需进行化疗或化疗对其无效的早期乳腺癌患者。[78]Harris LN, Ismailia N, McShane LM, et al; American Society of Clinical Oncology. Use of biomarkers to guide decisions on adjuvant systemic therapy for women with early-stage invasive breast cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 2016;34:1134-1150.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2015.65.2289http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26858339?tool=bestpractice.com