诊断白喉需结合病史、体格检查和白喉棒状杆菌培养阳性。如果临床表现不典型或易混淆,聚合酶链反应 (PCR) 检测可为诊断提供支持性证据,但 PCR 尚未被作为实验室确诊的公认标准。[1]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases. Chapter 1: diphtheria. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt01-dip.html
病史
呼吸道白喉的症状开始通常为喉咙痛和低烧。随着疾病进展,会出现吞咽困难、发音障碍、呼吸困难和哮吼性咳嗽,这意味着咽喉部假膜扩展和/或后部咽喉神经受累。[9]World Health Organization. Diphtheria vaccine: WHO position paper - August 2017. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2017 Aug 4;92(31):417-35.http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/258683/WER9231-417-435.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28776357?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Stephen Buescher. Diphtheria. In: Behrman RE, Kliegman R, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 17th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2004:886-9. 当发生这种情况时,呼吸性损害和误吸导致死亡的风险显著增加。
获取全面的既往免疫接种史,包括白喉疫苗,至关重要。 如果可能,也要获得密切接触者的免疫接种史。 也应查询旅行史和/或与患者接触史。
白喉仍然在海地和多米尼加共和国以及亚洲、南太平洋、中东和东欧的许多国家流行。[8]Tiwari TS. Diptheria. In: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book 2018: health information for international travel. Chapter 3 - infectious diseases related to travel. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2017.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2018/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/diphtheria[9]World Health Organization. Diphtheria vaccine: WHO position paper - August 2017. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2017 Aug 4;92(31):417-35.http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/258683/WER9231-417-435.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28776357?tool=bestpractice.com
在皮肤白喉患者中,处于居住拥挤或无家可归的环境下且有基础皮肤病病史是典型的。最初,感染的皮肤病灶往往处于浅表,有疼痛、触痛和红斑;到就诊时,病灶往往形成溃疡。皮肤病灶往往在四肢出现,因为这些部位被割伤和擦伤的风险最大,这些损伤随后可继发白喉棒状杆菌感染。
体格检查
如果上呼吸道受累,2 到 5 天的咽喉痛后,开始形成典型的覆盖扁桃体和/或咽部的褐灰色假膜。如果不及时治疗,这种假膜可增厚并扩散至累及口咽的其他部位、鼻咽、喉和气管。肿胀的颈部和淋巴结肿大导致公牛颈外观特征。
皮肤白喉有边界清晰的疼痛病灶,常形成溃疡,同时可能发现有灰褐色膜覆盖。[12]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diphtheria: clinicians. Jan 2016 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/diphtheria/clinicians.html[26]Stephen Buescher. Diphtheria. In: Behrman RE, Kliegman R, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 17th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2004:886-9.
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 典型的白喉假膜公共卫生图像库(PHIL),CDC [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 经 18 小时培养的白喉棒状杆菌(采用 Albert 染色)公共卫生图像库(PHIL),CDC [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 皮肤白喉:注意边缘清晰的深溃疡公共卫生图像库(PHIL),CDC [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 白喉棒状杆菌导致的皮肤损害公共卫生图像库(PHIL),CDC [Citation ends].
实验室检查
白喉的诊断需要通过微生物培养和显微镜检查确认。 这需要用选择性培养基如亚碲酸血琼脂、加强型莱夫勒、霍伊尔、米勒或廷德尔培养基。 培养物取自疑似白喉患者及其密切接触者的鼻和咽拭子。 在可能的情况下,拭子应在假膜下方采样。
培养能将白喉棒状杆菌与其他鼻咽和皮肤的自然菌群中的部分棒状杆菌(例如,类白喉)区分开。[12]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diphtheria: clinicians. Jan 2016 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/diphtheria/clinicians.html[26]Stephen Buescher. Diphtheria. In: Behrman RE, Kliegman R, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 17th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2004:886-9. 即使患者的培养物呈阴性,从密切接触者分离到白喉棒状杆菌也可以证实该诊断。[1]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases. Chapter 1: diphtheria. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt01-dip.html
改良 Elek 试验可用于确定分离出的白喉棒状杆菌菌株的毒性。[1]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases. Chapter 1: diphtheria. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt01-dip.html 从技术上来说,这是一个较困难的试验,许多实验室不提供。[26]Stephen Buescher. Diphtheria. In: Behrman RE, Kliegman R, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 17th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2004:886-9.
也可以测定白喉抗体水平。 如果水平很高,较少发生严重疾病。 然而,即使抗体水平低(非保护性白喉抗体滴度<0.01 IU/mL ),也不能排除白喉。[1]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases. Chapter 1: diphtheria. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt01-dip.html[26]Stephen Buescher. Diphtheria. In: Behrman RE, Kliegman R, Jenson HB, eds. Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 17th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2004:886-9.[27]Favorova LA. The risk of infection in droplet infections. The influence of overcrowding and prolonged contact on transmission of the diphtheria pathogen. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol. 1969;13(1):73-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5814141?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 白喉患者典型的牛颈样外观公共卫生图像库(PHIL),CDC [Citation ends].
报告
美国疑似白喉病例应立即通过电话向 CDC 报告,从而可以获得白喉抗毒素;这是在美国唯一的抗毒素来源。[1]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases. Chapter 1: diphtheria. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt01-dip.html 也应联系国家卫生部门,以确保符合国家规定的报告要求。