继发性肾上腺功能抑制的最常见原因是应用外源性糖皮质激素,可能是因为如哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺疾病、关节炎这些疾病常常采用应用外源性糖皮质激素治疗。全身性应用糖皮质激素是继发性肾上腺功能抑制的明确原因。局部应用糖皮质激素(如关节内、[3]Duclos M, Guinot M, Colsy M, et al. High risk of adrenal insufficiency after a single articular steroid injection in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:1036-1043.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17596769?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Mader R, Lavi I, Luboshitzky R. Evaluation of the pituitary-adrenal axis function following single intraarticular injection of methylprednisolone. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:924-928.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15751089?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Wicki J, Droz M, Cirafici L, et al. Acute adrenal crisis in a patient treated with intraarticular steroid therapy. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:510-511.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10685823?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Lansang MC, Farmer T, Kennedy L. Diagnosing the unrecognized systemic absorption of intra-articular and epidural steroid injections. Endocr Pract. 2009;15:225-228.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19364690?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Habib GS. Systemic effects of intra-articular corticosteroids. Clin Rheumatol. 2009;28:749-756.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19252817?tool=bestpractice.com硬膜外、[8]Kay J, Findling JW, Raff H. Epidural triacinolone suppresses the pituitary-adrenal axis in human subjects. Anesth Analg. 1994;79:501-505.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8067555?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Jacobs S, Pullan PT, Potter JM, et al. Adrenal suppression following extradural steroids. Anaesthesia. 1983;38:953-956.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6314836?tool=bestpractice.com吸入性、[2]Zollner EW. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression in asthmatic children on inhaled corticosteroids (part 2) - the risk as determined by gold standard adrenal function tests: a systematic review. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2007;18:469-474.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17680905?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Wlodarczyk JH, Gibson PG, Caeser M. Impact of inhaled corticosteroids on cortisol suppression in adults with asthma: a quantitative review. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2008;100:23-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18254478?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Schild U, et al. Effect of a 14-day course of systemic corticosteroids on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. BMC Pulm Med. 2008;8:1.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=18221550http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18221550?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Donaldson MD, Morrison C, Lees C, et al. Fatal and near-fatal encephalopathy with hyponatraemia in two siblings with fluticasone-induced adrenal suppression. Acta Paediatr. 2007;96:769-772.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17376180?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Masoli M, Weatherall M, Holt S, et al. Inhaled fluticasone propionate and adrenal effects in adult asthma: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2006;28:960-967.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/5/960.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16737984?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Sherman B, Weinberger M, Chen-Walden H, et al. Further studies of the effects of inhaled glucocorticoids on pituitary-adrenal function in healthy adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1982;69:208-212.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7056952?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health. Adrenal suppression and clinical harms by inhaled corticosteroids: a review of safety and guidelines. August 2011. http://www.cadth.ca (last accessed 28 July 2016).http://www.cadth.ca/media/pdf/htis/aug-2011/RC0295_Adrenal_Suppression_Inhaled_Steroids.pdf吸入皮质类固醇对肾上腺皮质功能的抑制作用:有中等质量的证据表明使用800至3200μg布地奈德可发生肾上腺功能抑制,高剂量的氟替卡松常与肾上腺危象的病例中相关。[16]Sharek PJ, Bergman DA, Ducharme FM. Beclomethasone for asthma in children: effects on linear growth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 1999;(3):CD001282.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001282/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10796632?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Adams N, Bestall J, Jones PW. Budesonide at different doses for chronic asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(4):CD003271.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003271/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11687182?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Todd GR, Acerini CL, Ross-Russell R, et al. Survey of adrenal crisis associated with inhaled corticosteroids in the United Kingdom. Arch Dis Child. 2002;87:457-461.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12456538?tool=bestpractice.com环索奈德对肾上腺功能似乎并无不利影响。[15]Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health. Adrenal suppression and clinical harms by inhaled corticosteroids: a review of safety and guidelines. August 2011. http://www.cadth.ca (last accessed 28 July 2016).http://www.cadth.ca/media/pdf/htis/aug-2011/RC0295_Adrenal_Suppression_Inhaled_Steroids.pdf[19]Skoner DP, Maspero J, Banerji D, et al. Assessment of the long-term safety of inhaled ciclesonide on growth in children with asthma. Pediatrics. 2008;121:e1-e14.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18070931?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。鼻内或局部途径[11]Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Schild U, et al. Effect of a 14-day course of systemic corticosteroids on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. BMC Pulm Med. 2008;8:1.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=18221550http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18221550?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Guven A, Gulumser O, Ozgen T. Cushing's syndrome and adrenocortical insufficiency caused by topical steroids: misuse or abuse? J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2007;20:1173-1182.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18183788?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Gen R, Akbay E, Sezer K. Cushing syndrome caused by topical corticosteroid: a case report. Am J Med Sci. 2007;333:173-174.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17496736?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Atabek ME, Pirgon O, Unal E. Pituitary-adrenal axis suppression due to topical steroid administration in an infant. Pediatr Int. 2007;49:242-244.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17445047?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Siklar Z, Bostanci I, Atli O, et al. An infantile Cushing syndrome due to misuse of topical steroid. Pediatr Dermatol. 2004;21:561-563.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15461763?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Woo WK, McKenna KE. Iatrogenic adrenal gland suppression from use of a potent topical steroid. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2003;28:672-673.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14616843?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Gilbertson EO, Spellman MC, Piacquadio DJ, et al. Super potent topical corticosteroid use associated with adrenal suppression: clinical considerations. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998;38:318-321.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9486706?tool=bestpractice.com)也可引起继发性肾上腺功能抑制,但相对少见。亦有报道显示作用于糖皮质激素受体的药物(如醋酸甲地孕酮[26]Gonzalez Villarroel P, Fernandez Perez I, Paramo C, et al. Megestrol acetate-induced adrenal insufficiency. Clin Transl Oncol. 2008;10:235-237.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18411198?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Bulchandani D, Nachani J, Amin A, et al. Megestrol acetate-associated adrenal insufficiency. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2008;6:167-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18775392?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Vassiliadi D, Tsagarakis S. Unusual causes of Cushing's syndrome. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 2007;51:1245-1252.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-27302007000800010http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18209862?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Orme LM, Bond JD, Humphrey MS, et al. Megestrol acetate in pediatric oncology patients may lead to severe, symptomatic adrenal suppression. Cancer. 2003;98:397-405.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.11502/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12872362?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Meacham LR, Mazewski C, Krawiecki N. Mechanism of transient adrenal insufficiency with megestrol acetate treatment of cachexia in children with cancer. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2003;25:414-417.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12759631?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Naing KK, Dewar JA, Leese GP. Megestrol acetate therapy and secondary adrenal suppression. Cancer. 1999;86:1044-1049.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10491532?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Mann M, Koller E, Murgo A, et al. Glucocorticoidlike activity of megestrol: a summary of Food and Drug Administration experience and a review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1651-1656.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9250225?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Subramanian S, Goker H, Kanji A, et al. Clinical adrenal insufficiency in patients receiving megestrol therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1008-1011.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9140272?tool=bestpractice.com和醋酸甲羟孕酮)[34]Hellman L, Yoshida K, Zumoff B, et al. The effect of medroxyprogesterone acetate on the pituitary-adrenal axis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1976;42:912-917.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/178684?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Van Veelen H, Willemse PH, Sleijfer DT, et al. Adrenal suppression by oral high-dose medroxyprogesterone acetate in breast cancer patients. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 1984;12:83-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6321047?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Dux S, Bishara J, Marom D, et al. Medroxyprogesterone acetate-induced secondary adrenal insufficiency. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32:134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9475840?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Malik KJ, Wakelin K, Dean S, et al. Cushing's syndrome and hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis suppression induced by medroxyprogesterone acetate. Ann Clin Biochem. 1996;33:187-189.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8791979?tool=bestpractice.com也是原因之一。此外,有报道称抗逆转录病毒药物利托那韦和吸入性或鼻内给药的丙酸氟替卡松之间的相互作用与继发性肾上腺功能抑制有关。[38]Foisy MM, Yakiwchuk EM, Chiu I, et al. Adrenal suppression and Cushing's syndrome secondary to an interaction between ritonavir and fluticasone: a review of the literature. HIV Med. 2008;9:389-396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18459946?tool=bestpractice.com更近的报告认为麻醉诱导剂依托咪酯可以干扰肾上腺类固醇合成,[39]Chan CM, Mitchell AL, Shorr AF. Etomidate is associated with mortality and adrenal insufficiency in sepsis: a meta-analysis*. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:2945-2953.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22971586?tool=bestpractice.com并发现它可增加脓毒症患者继发肾上腺功能不全的风险和死亡率。
肾上腺腺瘤或癌可分泌过量糖皮质激素引起库欣综合征表现,并可能抑制对侧肾上腺皮质功能,如果切除自主腺瘤或癌后未补充糖皮质激素,会造成肾上腺皮质功能不全。[40]Bertagna C, Orth DN. Clinical and laboratory findings and results of therapy in 58 patients with adrenocortical tumors admitted to a single medical center (1951 to 1978). Am J Med. 1981;71:855-875.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6272575?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Luton JP, Cerdas S, Billaud L, et al. Clinical features of adrenocortical carcinoma, prognostic factors, and the effect of mitotane therapy. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1195-1201.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2325710?tool=bestpractice.com此外,继发于垂体 ACTH 瘤的库欣病患者切除垂体肿瘤后,垂体中剩余分泌 ACTH 的细胞可能恢复缓慢。因此,在肾上腺功能抑制期间,有必要补充糖皮质激素。