因为诺卡菌是罕见病,临床试验尚未建立其药物选择、管理和疗程方案。大多数建议是基于基础研究成果,动物模型和临床专家意见。
虽然对所有显著的诺卡菌临床分离株,推荐做敏感性试验,但未得到试验结果时,临床医生通常采用经验治疗。磺胺类药物(例如,甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑)作为临床治疗诺卡菌病的药物已有60多年了。根据临床表现,疾病的演变,以及所累及部位, 必要时采取手术治疗。
重症患者初始治疗
重症患者包括播散性患者,中枢神经系统受累,伴空洞或胸腔积液,或免疫功能低下患者。虽然磺胺类是经典首选药物,重症患者仍需要2种或更多的有效药物。单独磺胺类药物治疗会增加死亡率,复发也常见。此外,与这类药物相关的副作用发生率高如过敏反应或严重恶心。[60]Wallace RJ Jr, Septimus EJ, Williams TW Jr, et al. Use of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for treatment of infections due to Nocardia. Rev Infect Dis. 1982;4:315-325.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6981158?tool=bestpractice.com不同的菌种有不同的抗生素耐药谱,某些特殊菌株,可能对磺胺类耐药。[61]Hitti W, Wolff M. Two cases of multidrug-resistant Nocardia farcinica infection in immunosuppressed patients and implications for empiric therapy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24:142-144.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15692815?tool=bestpractice.com
磺胺类和阿米卡星及β内酰胺类组合覆盖所有临床分离株,还没有对这个组合耐药的报道。[6]Brown-Elliott BA, Brown JM, Conville PS, et al. Clinical and laboratory features of the Nocardia spp. based on current molecular taxonomy. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006;19:259-282.http://cmr.asm.org/content/19/2/259.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16614249?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Lerner PI. Nocardiosis. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:891-903.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8783685?tool=bestpractice.com一些专家推荐一种三联药物,甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑、阿米卡星、头孢曲松或碳青霉烯类(亚胺培南/西司他丁)。另一些人认为磺胺类不是初始治疗首选药物,而亚胺培南/西司他丁加阿米卡星是首选组合。[3]Matulionyte R, Rohner P, Uçkay I, et al. Secular trends of nocardia infection over 15 years in a tertiary care hospital. J Clin Pathol. 2004;57:807-812.http://jcp.bmj.com/content/57/8/807.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15280400?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Hitti W, Wolff M. Two cases of multidrug-resistant Nocardia farcinica infection in immunosuppressed patients and implications for empiric therapy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;24:142-144.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15692815?tool=bestpractice.com这个方案的潜在问题是有1例中枢神经受累患者可能存在对β内酰胺类耐药的菌种。这种情况下,由于氨基糖苷类进入中枢神经系统渗透性不足可能导致临床疗效不佳。
利奈唑胺已经显示出较强的体外抗菌活性。[63]Brown-Elliott BA, Ward SC, Crist CJ, et al. In vitro activities of linezolid against multiple Nocardia species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45:1295-1297.http://aac.asm.org/content/45/4/1295.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11257051?tool=bestpractice.com尽管临床经验有限,已有一些临床反应良好的报道。[64]Moylett EH, Pacheco SE, Brown-Elliott BA, et al. Clinical experience with linezolid for the treatment of Nocardia infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:313-318.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/36/3/313.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12539073?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Jodlowski TZ, Melnychuk I, Conry J. Linezolid for the treatment of Nocardia spp. infections. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:1694-1699.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17785610?tool=bestpractice.com中枢神经受累患者的治疗也是成功的。[66]Ntziora F, Falagas ME. Linezolid for the treatment of patients with central nervous system infection. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:296-308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17284501?tool=bestpractice.com因此,在对甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑,亚胺培南/西司他丁,或阿米卡星有禁忌症或不良反应的病例中,利奈唑胺是初始经验治疗的一个有潜力的替代药物,也可口服用于后续治疗。但是,有一项研究,尽管患者数量少(n=11),利奈唑胺治疗诺卡菌病的副作用为45%的患者出现骨髓抑制,18%的患者患神经系统病变。[65]Jodlowski TZ, Melnychuk I, Conry J. Linezolid for the treatment of Nocardia spp. infections. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41:1694-1699.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17785610?tool=bestpractice.com基于这个原因,利奈唑胺不能作为一线治疗药物。
治疗应从静脉注射开始持续至少2周。临床效果佳时,2周后患者可改为口服治疗。目前还不清楚甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑是否比单独磺胺类活性高,但在一些国家,甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑是唯一的静脉类磺胺药物。推荐初始高剂量,随后减量。[60]Wallace RJ Jr, Septimus EJ, Williams TW Jr, et al. Use of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for treatment of infections due to Nocardia. Rev Infect Dis. 1982;4:315-325.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6981158?tool=bestpractice.com
非重症诺卡菌病患者初始治疗
推荐采用甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑和另一类抗生素如莫西沙星、环丙沙星、头孢曲松或米诺环素联合用药。[18]Martínez R, Reyes S, Menendez R. Pulmonary nocardiosis: risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis and prognosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2008;14:219-227.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18427245?tool=bestpractice.com分型和敏感性试验结果出来后可调整治疗方案。
皮肤诺卡菌病患者的初始治疗
对于免疫功能正常的患者,任何类型的皮肤诺卡菌病可能适合甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲基异唑单药治疗。[12]Inamadar AC, Palit A. Primary cutaneous nocardiosis: a case study and review. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2003;69:386-391.http://www.ijdvl.com/article.asp?issn=0378-6323;year=2003;volume=69;issue=6;spage=386;epage=391;aulast=Inamadarhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17642947?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Maraki S, Scoulica E, Alpantaki K, et al. Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis due to Nocardia brasiliensis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;47:341-344.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12967747?tool=bestpractice.com莫西沙星或环丙沙星联合治疗可能是必需的,特别是对于足分支菌病[68]Negroni R, Lopez Daneri G, Arechavala A, et al. Clinical and microbiological study of mycetomas at the Muniz hospital of Buenos Aires between 1989 and 2004 [in Spanish]. Rev Argent Microbiol. 2006;38:13-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16784127?tool=bestpractice.com或有深部组织受累或发展至骨。因诺卡菌对磺胺类药物耐药,亚胺培南显示对放线菌性足分支菌病较好的疗效。[69]Ameen M, Arenas R, Vásquez del Mercado E, et al. Efficacy of imipenem therapy for Nocardia actinomycetomas refractory to sulfonamides. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010;62:239-246.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20005007?tool=bestpractice.com
后续治疗
获得分型及敏感性试验结果后,可调整治疗方案,后续治疗可考虑口服给药。根据涉及的菌种,其他可能有用的药物包括头孢菌素(例如头孢曲松)、其他 β-内酰胺(例如阿莫西林/克拉维酸)、甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲噁唑、米诺环素、喹诺酮(例如环丙沙星、莫西沙星)、利奈唑胺和碳青霉烯(例如美罗培南、亚胺培南/西司他丁、厄他培南)。大多数皮疽诺卡菌对头孢菌素类耐药,但头孢菌素对星形诺卡菌VI类,新星诺卡菌和脓肿诺卡菌有较高活性。后者常见亚胺培南/西司他丁耐药。盖尔森基兴诺卡菌是一种新命名的却被广为认知的人类病原菌,[70]Conville PS, Witebsky FG. Organisms designated as Nocardia asteroides drug pattern type VI are members of the species Nocardia cyriacigeorgica. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:2257-2259.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17475753?tool=bestpractice.com据报道,它也对亚胺培南/西司他丁耐药。[45]Hagerman A, Rodríguez-Nava V, Boiron P, et al. Imipenem-resistant Nocardia cyriacigeorgica infection in a child with chronic granulomatous disease. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:1185-1187.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21177900?tool=bestpractice.com由于对不同碳青霉烯的易感性会因诺卡氏菌菌种的不同而有所变化,因此检测诺卡氏菌对于亚胺培南/西司他丁、美罗培南和厄他培南的敏感性可能具有一定的价值。[71]Brown-Elliott BA, Killingley J, Vasireddy S, et al. In vitro comparison of ertapenem, meropenem, and imipenem against isolates of rapidly growing mycobacteria and Nocardia using broth microdilution and e-tests. J Clin Microbiol. 2016 Apr 6 [Epub ahead of print].http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27053677?tool=bestpractice.com喹诺酮类对大多数皮肤诺卡菌和巴西诺卡菌有活性。巴西诺卡菌也常对阿莫西林/克拉维酸敏感。[6]Brown-Elliott BA, Brown JM, Conville PS, et al. Clinical and laboratory features of the Nocardia spp. based on current molecular taxonomy. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006;19:259-282.http://cmr.asm.org/content/19/2/259.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16614249?tool=bestpractice.com然而,由于同一菌种的耐药谱也有可能不同,每个患者治疗方案都需个性化,不能标准化。
治疗和二级预防的持续时间
治疗的持续时间是可变的,取决于受累部位和患者的免疫状态。原发性皮肤诺卡菌病需治疗1~3个月。但是足分支菌病需要治疗更长时间。不伴中枢神经受累的肺和播散性诺卡菌病治疗至少需要6个月。[17]Corti ME, Villafane-Fioti MF. Nocardiosis: a review. Int J Infect Dis. 2003;7:243-250.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14656414?tool=bestpractice.com中枢神经系统受累的患者,治疗时间需依临床及影像学变化而定,常需要1年或更长时间。CD4 T细胞计数较低的HIV感染者和接受移植的患者,口服有效的二级预防药物需维持到免疫状态改善。[26]Biscione F, Cecchini D, Ambrosioni J, et al. Nocardiosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection [in Spanish]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2005;23:419-423.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16159542?tool=bestpractice.com
外科治疗
诺卡菌病有些受累部位可能需要手术辅助治疗,尤其是并发脑脓肿。然而,最佳的治疗方法尚未建立,诺卡菌脑脓肿要么采取保守立体定向治疗,或者开颅摘除。[54]Cecchini D, Ambrosioni JC, Gomez A, et al. Disseminated nocardiosis caused by Nocardia abscessus in an HIV-infected patient: first reported case. AIDS. 2005;19:1330-1331.http://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2005&issue=08120&article=00015&type=fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16052092?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Valarezo J, Cohen JE, Valarezo L, et al. Nocardial cerebral abscess: report of three cases and review of the current neurosurgical management. Neurol Res. 2003;25:27-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12564122?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Dahan K, El Kabbaj D, Venditto M, et al. Intracranial Nocardia recurrence during fluorinated quinolones therapy. Transpl Infect Dis. 2006;8:161-165.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16913975?tool=bestpractice.com因此,每一个病例都需要主治医师,传染病专家和外科医生进行多学科仔细得评估。手术或纤维支气管镜可以用于引流肺脓肿或脓胸。[5]Yildiz O, Doganay M. Actinomycoses and Nocardia pulmonary infections. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2006;12:228-234.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16582679?tool=bestpractice.com
皮肤病变和足分支菌病有时可能需要进行手术治疗,[74]Devi KR, Singh LR, Devi NT, et al. Subcutaneous nocardial abscess in a post-renal transplant patient. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2007;25:279-281.http://www.ijmm.org/article.asp?issn=0255-0857;year=2007;volume=25;issue=3;spage=279;epage=281;aulast=Devihttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17901652?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Lichon V, Khachemoune A. Mycetoma: a review. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2006;7:315-321.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17007542?tool=bestpractice.com一些眼部感染[76]Clare G, Mitchell S. Iris root abscess and necrotizing sclerokeratitis caused by Mycobacterium abscessus and presenting as hemorrhagic anterior uveitis. Cornea. 2008;27:255-257.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18216592?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Gokhale NS, Garg P, Rodrigues C, et al. Nocardia infection following phacoemulsification. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2007;55:59-61.http://www.ijo.in/article.asp?issn=0301-4738;year=2007;volume=55;issue=1;spage=59;epage=61;aulast=Gokhalehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17189890?tool=bestpractice.com和身体其他部位受累的罕见病例亦然。[78]Gates JD, Warth JA, McGowan K. Nocardia asteroides-infected aneurysm of the aorta: case report and review of the literature. Vascular. 2006;14:165-168.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16956490?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Shah HR, Zamboni WA, Khiabani KT. Nocardial septic arthritis of the wrist diagnosed and treated by arthroscopy. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg. 2005;39:252-254.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16208791?tool=bestpractice.com