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Rabold MB. Frostbite and other localized cold-related injuries. In: Tintinalli JE, Kelen GD, Stapczynski JS, et al. Tintinalli's emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2004.

Murphy JV, Banwell PE, Roberts AH, et al. Frostbite: pathogenesis and treatment. J Trauma. 2000 Jan;48(1):171-8.

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McIntosh SE, Opacic M, Freer L, et al. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2014 Dec;25(4 suppl):S43-54.

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Roche-Nagle G, Murphey D, Collins A, et al. Frostbite: management options. Eur J Emerg Med. 2008 Jun;15(3):173-5.

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Kanzenbach TL, Dexter WW. Cold injuries: protecting your patients from the dangers of hypothermia and frostbite. Postgrad Med. 1999 Jan;105(1):72-8.

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3.  Bhatnagar A, Sarker BB, Sawroop K, et al. Diagnosis, characterization and evaluation of treatment response of frostbite using pertechnetate scintigraphy: a prospective study. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2002 Feb;29(2):170-5.

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8.  Yamamoto T, Yoshinaga T, Sakamoto K, et al. Incidence of adverse effects by cold application after athletic injury – four cases of frostbite which developed after cold application: the need for prevention education. Jpn J Orthopedic Sports Med. 1999;18:337-42.

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10.  Rabold MB. Frostbite and other localized cold-related injuries. In: Tintinalli JE, Kelen GD, Stapczynski JS, et al. Tintinalli's emergency medicine: a comprehensive study guide. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2004.

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12.  Juopperi K, Hassi J, Ervasti O, et al. Incidence of frostbite and ambient temperature in Finland, 1986-1995: a national study based on hospital admissions. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2002 Nov;61(4):352-62.

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13.  Murphy JV, Banwell PE, Roberts AH, et al. Frostbite: pathogenesis and treatment. J Trauma. 2000 Jan;48(1):171-8.

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14.  Foray J. Mountain frostbite: current trends in prognosis and treatment (from results concerning 1261 cases). Int J Sports Med. 1992 Oct;13(suppl 1):S193-6.

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16.  Ingram BJ, Raymond TJ. Recognition and treatment of freezing and nonfreezing cold injuries. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2013 Mar-Apr;12(2):125-30.

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17.  Kiss TL. Critical care for frostbite. Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am. 2012 Dec;24(4):581-91.

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18.  Cheung SS, Daanen HA. Dynamic adaptation of the peripheral circulation to cold exposure. Microcirculation. 2012 Jan;19(1):65-77.

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19.  Fudge J. Preventing and managing hypothermia and frostbite injury. Sports Health. 2016 Mar-Apr;8(2):133-9.

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20.  Pinzur MS, Weaver FM. Is urban frostbite a psychiatric disorder? Orthopedics. 1997 Jan;20(1):43-5.

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21.  Pulla PJ, Pickard LJ, Carnett TS. Frostbite: an overview with case presentations. J Foot Ankle Surg. 1994 Jan-Feb;33(1):53-63.

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22.  DeFranko MJ, Baker CL 3rd, DaSilva JJ, et al. Environmental issues for team physicians. Am J Sports Med. 2008 Nov;36(11):2226-37.

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23.  Su CW, Lohman R, Gottleib LJ. Frostbite of the upper extremity. Hand Clin. 2000 May;16(2):235-47.

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24.  McAdams TR, Swenson DR, Miller RA. Frostbite: an orthopedic perspective. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 1999 Jan;28(1):21-6.

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25.  Barker JR, Haws MJ, Brown RE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of severe frostbite. Ann Plast Surg. 1997 Mar;38(3):275-9.

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26.  Junila J, Kaarela O, Makarainen H, et al. Assessment of tissue viability by thermography after experimentally produced frostbite of the rabbit ear. Acta Radiol. 1993 Nov;34(6):622-4.

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28.  McIntosh SE, Opacic M, Freer L, et al. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update. Wilderness Environ Med. 2014 Dec;25(4 suppl):S43-54.

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29.  Sallis R, Chassay CM. Recognizing and treating common cold-induced injury in outdoor sports. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999 Oct;31(10):1367-73.

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31.  Biem J, Koehncke N, Classen D, et al. Out of the cold: management of hypothermia and frostbite. CMAJ. 2003 Feb 4;168(3):305-11.

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32.  Roche-Nagle G, Murphey D, Collins A, et al. Frostbite: management options. Eur J Emerg Med. 2008 Jun;15(3):173-5.

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33.  Bruen KJ, Ballard JR, Morris SE, et al. Reduction of the incidence of amputation in frostbite injury with thrombolytic therapy. Arch Surg. 2007 Jun;142(6):546-53.

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34.  Poulakidas S, Cologne K, Kowal-Vern A. Treatment of frostbite with subatmospheric pressure therapy. J Burn Care Res. 2008 Nov-Dec;29(6):1012-4.

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35.  Cauchy E, Chetaille E, Lefevre M, et al. The role of bone scanning in severe frostbite of the extremities: a retrospective study of 88 cases. Eur J Nucl Med. 2000 May;27(5):497-502.

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36.  Twomey JA, Peltier GL, Zera RT. An open-label study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tissue plasminogen activator in treatment of severe frostbite. J Trauma. 2005 Dec;59(6):1350-5.

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37.  Woo EK, Lee JW, Hur GY, et al. Proposed treatment protocol for frostbite: a retrospective analysis of 17 cases based on a 3-year single-institution experience. Arch Plast Surg. 2013 Sep;40(5):510-6.

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38.  Hallam MJ, Cubison T, Dheansa B, et al. Managing frostbite. BMJ. 2010 Nov 19;341:c5864.

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39.  Lindford A, Valtonen J, Hult M, et al. The evolution of the Helsinki frostbite management protocol. Burns. 2017 Nov;43(7):1455-63.

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40.  Taylor MS. Lumbar epidural sympathectomy for frostbite injuries of the feet. Mil Med. 1999 Aug;164(8):566-7.

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41.  Pasquier M, Ruffinen GZ, Brugger H, et al. Pre-hospital wrist block for digital frostbite injuries. High Alt Med Biol. 2012 Mar;13(1):65-6.

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42.  Calder K, Chung B, O'Brien C, et al. Bupivacaine digital blocks: how long is the pain relief and temperature elevation? Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013 May;131(5):1098-104.

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43.  Chandran GJ, Chung B, Lalonde J, et al. The hyperthermic effect of a distal volar forearm nerve block: a possible treatment of acute digital frostbite injuries? Plast Reconstr Surg. 2010 Sep;126(3):946-50.

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44.  Folio LR, Arkin K, Butler WP. Frostbite in a mountain climber treated with hyperbaric oxygen: case report. Mil Med. 2007 May;172(5):560-3.

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45.  von Heimburg D, Noah EM, Sieckmann UP, et al. Hyperbaric oxygen treatment in deep frostbite of both hands in a boy. Burns. 2001 Jun;27(4):404-8.

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46.  Lansdorp CA, Roukema GR, Boonstra O, et al. Delayed treatment of frostbite with hyperbaric oxygen: a report of two cases. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2017 Jul-Aug;44(4):365-9.

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47.  Bilgiç S, Ozkan H, Ozenç S, et al. Treating frostbite. Can Fam Physician. 2008 Mar;54(3):361-3.

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48.  Purkayastha SS, Bhaumik G, Chauhen SK, et al. Immediate treatment of frostbite using rapid re-warming in tea decoction followed by combined therapy of pentoxyfylline, aspirin and vitamin C. Indian J Med Res. 2002 Jul;116:29-34.

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49.  Hayes DW Jr, Mandracchia VJ, Considine C, et al. Pentoxifylline: adjunctive therapy in the treatment of pedal frostbite. Clin Podiatr Med Surg. 2000 Oct;17(4):715-22.

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50.  Poole A, Gauthier J. Treatment of severe frostbite with iloprost in northern Canada. CMAJ. 2016 Dec 6;188(17-18):1255-8.

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51.  Norheim AJ, Mercer J, Musial F, et al. A new treatment for frostbite sequelae; Botulinum toxin. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2017;76(1):1273677.

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52.  Madry R, Struzyna J, Stachura-Kulach A, et al. Effectiveness of Suprathel® application in partial thickness burns, frostbites and Lyell syndrome treatment. Pol Przegl Chir. 2011 Oct;83(10):541-8.

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53.  Kanzenbach TL, Dexter WW. Cold injuries: protecting your patients from the dangers of hypothermia and frostbite. Postgrad Med. 1999 Jan;105(1):72-8.

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