恶性气道阻塞的4项发生机制:邻近肿瘤侵入气道;原发气道腔内恶性肿瘤;支气管内病变转移;或邻近恶性病变压迫气道(例如纵隔恶性肿瘤或癌性淋巴结肿大)。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 中央气道阻塞:恶性肿瘤阻塞右主支气管由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
恶性CAO最常见的病因是邻近肿瘤伸入气道,最常见于原发性支气管癌。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Beamis JF Jr. Interventional pulmonology techniques for treating malignant large airway obstruction: an update. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2005;11:292-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15928494?tool=bestpractice.com最常见的细胞类型是鳞状细胞癌(SCC),占引起中央气道阻塞的非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)的一半以上。[27]Cosano Povedano A, Muñoz Cabrera L, Cosano Povedano FJ, et al. Endoscopic treatment of central airway stenosis: five years' experience. Arch Bronconeumol. 2005;41:322-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989889?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Chhajed PN, Eberhardt R, Dienemann H, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy interventions before surgical resection of lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006;81:1839-1843.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16631682?tool=bestpractice.com大约30%的肺癌患者在某个阶段会经历支气管内阻塞的症状。[29]Lund ME, Garland R, Ernst A. Airway stenting: applications and practice management considerations. Chest. 2007;131:579-587.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17296664?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Dutau H, Toutblanc B, Lamb C, et al. Use of the Dumon Y-stent in the management of malignant disease involving the carina: a retrospective review of 86 patients. Chest. 2004;126:951-958.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364778?tool=bestpractice.com
其他类型肿瘤常因位于邻近部位侵及支气管,包括食管癌,喉癌和甲状腺恶性肿瘤。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com
原发气道肿瘤现代少见。SCC和腺样囊性癌(ACC)[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.占所有原发气管肿瘤的70%-86%。其他少见的原发气道恶性肿瘤包括类癌和黏液上皮样瘤。类癌是位于隆突远端主要的原发气道恶性肿瘤,[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Wood DE. Management of malignant tracheobronchial obstruction. Surg Clin North Am. 2002;82:621-642.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12371589?tool=bestpractice.com大约75%的类癌位于中央支气管内。[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.
远隔部位的肿瘤转移到气管和支气管内相对少见。报告的发病率范围广泛,胸腔外肿瘤2%-50%转移到肺内。数据不一致可能与研究中定义不同有关。远隔部位肿瘤直接转移到气道的发病率很低。[3]Blasco M, Quadrelli SA, Bosio M, et al. Synovial sarcoma and endobronchial invasion. J Bronchology. 2008;15:167-169.http://journals.lww.com/bronchology/Fulltext/2008/07000/Synovial_Sarcoma_and_Endobronchial_Invasion.11.aspx[33]Kiryu T, Hoshi H, Matsui E, et al. Endotracheal/endobronchial metastases: clinicopathologic study with special reference to developmental modes. Chest. 2001;119:768-775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11243955?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Shepherd MP. Endobronchial metastatic disease. Thorax. 1982;37:362-365.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC459317/pdf/thorax00197-0042.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7112472?tool=bestpractice.com一项实体肿瘤患者的尸检结果显示,只在2%病例中发现有中央气道转移。[3]Blasco M, Quadrelli SA, Bosio M, et al. Synovial sarcoma and endobronchial invasion. J Bronchology. 2008;15:167-169.http://journals.lww.com/bronchology/Fulltext/2008/07000/Synovial_Sarcoma_and_Endobronchial_Invasion.11.aspx[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.
胸外肿瘤转移到支气管内导致有症状的CAO的发病率尚不明确。已知多种肿瘤可以直接转移到气道,如乳腺癌,大肠癌,肾癌和甲状腺癌。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Kiryu T, Hoshi H, Matsui E, et al. Endotracheal/endobronchial metastases: clinicopathologic study with special reference to developmental modes. Chest. 2001;119:768-775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11243955?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Shepherd MP. Endobronchial metastatic disease. Thorax. 1982;37:362-365.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC459317/pdf/thorax00197-0042.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7112472?tool=bestpractice.com
引起非恶性气管支气管阻塞的病因多种多样,从异物吸入到肺移植术后缺血相关的支气管狭窄。
气管插管(ETT)相关的医源性损伤可能是导致良性气管狭窄的最常见病因。[27]Cosano Povedano A, Muñoz Cabrera L, Cosano Povedano FJ, et al. Endoscopic treatment of central airway stenosis: five years' experience. Arch Bronconeumol. 2005;41:322-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989889?tool=bestpractice.com[35]George M, Lang F, Pasche P, et al. Surgical management of laryngotracheal stenosis in adults. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2005;262:609-615.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668812?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Swanson KL, Edell ES, Prakash UB, et al. Complications of metal stent therapy in benign airway obstruction. J Bronchology. 2007;14:90-94.http://journals.lww.com/bronchology/Fulltext/2007/04000/Complications_of_Metal_Stent_Therapy_in_Benign.7.aspx虽然,报道的继发于ETT的气管狭窄发生率范围大,但是估计有症状的气管狭窄(影像学或支气管镜下证实)的发生率为2%。自从临床使用了高容低压ETT,插管相关的严重并发症的发病生率显著下降。[7]Colt HG, Dumon JF. Airway stents: present and future. Clin Chest Med. 1995;16:465-478.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8521701?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Aboussouan LS, Stoller JK. Diagnosis and management of upper airway obstruction. Clin Chest Med. 1994;15:35-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8200192?tool=bestpractice.com应当指出,经皮气管切开术后的症状性气管狭窄的发生率与开放性手术后的发生率相似。[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.
继发于人工气道的气管狭窄表现为收缩性狭窄,软化或肉芽组织增生。气管切开术后狭窄可以在瘘口上,瘘口部位,气囊部位或套管口。[27]Cosano Povedano A, Muñoz Cabrera L, Cosano Povedano FJ, et al. Endoscopic treatment of central airway stenosis: five years' experience. Arch Bronconeumol. 2005;41:322-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989889?tool=bestpractice.com气管插管继发气管狭窄的部位相似,可以在球囊部位或插管末端。
气道非恶性肿瘤不常见。最常见的气管良性新生物是鳞状细胞乳头状瘤,典型的可以累及喉和支气管,累及气管相对少见。[37]Naidich DP, Webb WR, Muller NL, et al. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance of the thorax. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.喉气管支气管乳头瘤病是一种气道多发性鳞状细胞乳头瘤,比较少见。[37]Naidich DP, Webb WR, Muller NL, et al. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance of the thorax. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 气管-支气管乳头状瘤病由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].据报道,5%喉乳头瘤病患者会发生支气管和肺内播散,[38]Blackledge FA, Anand VK. Tracheobronchial extension of recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2000;109:812-818.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11007082?tool=bestpractice.com病因与HPV-6和HPV-11感染有关。[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.
支气管内错构瘤是另一种罕见的良性气道肿瘤。[39]Cosío BG, Villena V, Echave-Sustaeta J, et al. Endobronchial hamartoma. Chest. 2002;122:202-205.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12114359?tool=bestpractice.com虽然错构瘤是肺内常见的良性疾病,但是仅20%病例有支气管阻塞症状。[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.
气管支气管狭窄也常见于肺移植术后,其中最常见的并发症是支气管狭窄。[13]Santacruz JF, Mehta AC. Airway complications and management after lung transplantation: ischemia, dehiscence, and stenosis. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2009;6:79-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131533?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Herrera JM, McNeil KD, Higgins RS, et al. Airway complications after lung transplantation: treatment and long-term outcome. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;71:989-993.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11269487?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].根据不同的报道,发生率约为1.6%到32%。[13]Santacruz JF, Mehta AC. Airway complications and management after lung transplantation: ischemia, dehiscence, and stenosis. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2009;6:79-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131533?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Herrera JM, McNeil KD, Higgins RS, et al. Airway complications after lung transplantation: treatment and long-term outcome. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;71:989-993.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11269487?tool=bestpractice.com[41]De Gracia J, Culebras M, Alvarez A, et al. Bronchoscopic balloon dilatation in the management of bronchial stenosis following lung transplantation. Respir Med. 2007;101:27-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16774820?tool=bestpractice.com即使没有术前气道异常,肺移植术后可发生吻合口和非吻合口部位支气管狭窄,与坏死、断端修复和支气管内感染有关。术后肉芽组织增生和气管支气管软化也可以导致气道阻塞。[13]Santacruz JF, Mehta AC. Airway complications and management after lung transplantation: ischemia, dehiscence, and stenosis. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2009;6:79-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131533?tool=bestpractice.com
血管环,即异常主动脉弓或其分支压迫气道,为罕见病,其发病率小于0.2%。成人血管环常见为双主动脉弓和右侧主动脉弓伴变异的左锁骨下动脉。血管环压迫气道引起软化和动力性气道狭窄。[31]Fishman AP, Elias JA, Fishman JA, et al. Fishman's pulmonary diseases and disorders. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2008.肺动脉瘤是压迫气管支气管树的另一种异血管性病因。
气管支气管收缩狭窄也可与感染相关,例如结核(TB)和组织胞浆菌病。典型的结核可以累及气管远端和主支气管。[42]Hoheisel G, Chan BK, Chan CH, et al. Endobronchial tuberculosis: diagnostic features and therapeutic outcome. Respir Med. 1994;88:593-597.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7991884?tool=bestpractice.com组织胞浆菌病通过纤维性纵隔炎或支气管内肉芽肿,引起气管支气管阻塞。[6]Manali ED, Saad CP, Krizmanich G, et al. Endobronchial findings of fibrosing mediastinitis. Respir Care. 2003;48:1038-1042.http://www.rcjournal.com/contents/11.03/11.03.1038.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14635620?tool=bestpractice.com[43]David R, Duhamel M, James H, et al. Clinical atlas of airway diseases. Bronchoscopy, radiology, and pathology. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2005.
虽然异物吸入常见于儿童,但是呼吸科和急诊医生也常见到成人吸入异物。[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com成人异物吸入多见于60~70岁患者,与食物颗粒吸入有关。[44]Gudavalli R, Marquez-Martin E, Machuzak MS, et al. Bronchial stenosis due to potassium pill aspiration. J Bronchology. 2008;15:202-203.http://journals.lww.com/bronchology/Fulltext/2008/07000/Bronchial_Stenosis_Due_to_Potassium_Pill.22.aspx多种因素易造成患者误吸,包括酒精中毒,使用镇静药或安眠药,牙列异常,高龄,精神反应迟钝,帕金森病,神经疾病损害吞咽功能或精神状态,外伤意识不清,癫痫和全身麻醉。[45]Rafanan AL, Mehta AC. Adult airway foreign body removal: what's new? Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:319-330.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444115?tool=bestpractice.com
另一种少见但是可以引起气道阻塞的潜在原因是气道血肿,特别常见于住院患者。气道血肿原因很多,包括头部闭合伤或颈部外伤,吞入异物,咽后壁感染,颈动脉瘤,颈动脉窦按摩,颈动脉术后,颈内静脉置管,凝血障碍,颈椎外伤和手术,颈部过伸损伤和甲状腺针吸操作后。[46]Silva FS. Neck haematoma and airway obstruction in a patient with goitre: complication of internal jugular vein cannulation. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;47:626-629.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12699526?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Sandooram D, Chandramohan AR, Radcliffe G. Retropharyngeal haematoma causing airway obstruction: a multidisciplinary challenge. J Laryngol Otol. 2000;114:706-708.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11091836?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Roh JL. Intrathyroid hemorrhage and acute upper airway obstruction after fine needle aspiration of the thyroid gland. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:154-156.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16481831?tool=bestpractice.com