治疗CAO极具挑战性,需要多专业医生协作共同参与的团队,包括呼吸科,肿瘤化疗和放疗科,麻醉科,耳鼻喉科,胸外科和介入呼吸病学医生。
CAO的治疗方案大部分与初诊时症状相关,超过半数气道阻塞的病例介入治疗是在紧急情况下急诊完成的。[26]Ernst A, Simoff M, Ost D, et al. Prospective risk-adjusted morbidity and mortality outcome analysis after therapeutic bronchoscopic procedures: results of a multi-institutional outcomes database. Chest. 2008;134:514-519.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18641088?tool=bestpractice.com
气道严重阻塞伴有急迫的窒息感,需要紧急行动迅速开放气道,解除阻塞。[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com治疗常采取硬质支气管镜结合热治疗技术(如支气管内激光)。由于此类患者临床表现紧急,常规的初步检查(如高分辨率CT,肺功能)和诊断性可弯曲支气管镜检查可能难以进行。
多数良性病变或非急性表现的CAO患者,可在门诊白天接受治疗,术后在恢复室观察数小时,如果临床症状稳定,可以当天离院。[8]Mehta AC, Harris RJ, De Boer GE. Endoscopic management of benign airway stenosis. Clin Chest Med. 1995;16:401-413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8521696?tool=bestpractice.com
专家一般建议治疗CAO采取2步法,首先稳定病情,而后采用多种方法治疗气道病变,包括内镜下治疗和外科治疗。
初步稳定病情
开始治疗CAO的先决条件是维持足够的氧合和通气。
亚急性临床表现的CAO患者,应在鼻导管或面罩吸氧辅助下治疗。对这类病情稳定的患者,可进行诊断性支气管镜检查以获取更多信息。
对于表现为重症气管或支气管阻塞、症状不稳定几近呼吸衰竭者,初始治疗的关键是气道的建立,这些患者应在ICU进行评估和治疗。为保障气道的通畅,可能需要气管插管或硬质支气管镜治疗。对于重症近端上气道阻塞的患者,紧急情况下环甲软骨切开术或气管切开术成为治疗的选择。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.
气管插管时应该在麻醉师配合下,维持气道黏膜一定的兴奋性,或轻度镇静伴有自主呼吸状态,建议避免完全麻醉,因为会导致插管困难甚至难以插管。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.虽然CAO患者常很焦虑,使用镇静剂时应注意,因低通气可能加重气道异常。[54]Brodsky JB. Bronchoscopic procedures for central airway obstruction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2003;17:638-646.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579222?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Finlayson GN, Brodsky JB. Anesthetic considerations for airway stenting in adult patients. Anesthesiol Clin. 2008;26:281-291.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18456213?tool=bestpractice.com气管插管(ETT)时一定要仔细的延着气管向下插入,因为损伤气管黏膜可能加重气道腔内的阻塞,并导致出血。[54]Brodsky JB. Bronchoscopic procedures for central airway obstruction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2003;17:638-646.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579222?tool=bestpractice.com对于近端气管阻塞者,应考虑使用光纤辅助下直视插入ETT。[54]Brodsky JB. Bronchoscopic procedures for central airway obstruction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2003;17:638-646.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579222?tool=bestpractice.com喉罩(LMA)或支撑喉镜是避免此类并发症的替代选择。[72]Finlayson GN, Brodsky JB. Anesthetic considerations for airway stenting in adult patients. Anesthesiol Clin. 2008;26:281-291.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18456213?tool=bestpractice.com
如果怀疑重度气道阻塞且病情不稳定,应使用硬质支气管镜,以开放气道,保证氧合和通气。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Jeon K, Kim H, Yu CM, et al. Rigid bronchoscopic intervention in patients with respiratory failure caused by malignant central airway obstruction. J Thorac Oncol. 2006;1:319-323.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17409877?tool=bestpractice.com其也可以作为一种治疗工具,快速扩张气道狭窄。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.
氦氧混合气,是60%-80%氦气和20%-40%氧气的混合气,可以作为急性患者的过渡治疗,避免气管插管,或插管时更安全稳定。其通过减少大气道气体湍流而减少呼吸功,并在气道直径改变后更快地建立层流。[14]Aboussouan LS, Stoller JK. Diagnosis and management of upper airway obstruction. Clin Chest Med. 1994;15:35-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8200192?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Finlayson GN, Brodsky JB. Anesthetic considerations for airway stenting in adult patients. Anesthesiol Clin. 2008;26:281-291.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18456213?tool=bestpractice.com此作用能减小驱动压,或在同样驱动压下改善气流,减少呼吸功,保障气管插管或硬质支气管镜操作更安全。使用氦氧混合气的主要局限性是吸入氧浓度(FiO2)> 40%时不能给予氦氧混合气。即使生理学和临床上有氦氧混合气有效的报告,但是尚缺乏前瞻随机试验证实使用氦氧混合气能改善患者的预后。
如果没有专业的气道介入治疗团队,应在初步稳定患者病情后,转运到专科中心治疗。如患者因气道外病变压迫导致严重的呼吸衰竭,转诊前应紧急气管插管并采用可弯曲支气管镜经过狭窄段远端,清理远端气道脓液和分泌物,可以挽救生命。气管插管气囊充气可以压迫肿瘤段,使患者安全地转运到专科中心以进一步治疗。[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com
一旦初步治疗稳定后,对于那些未用硬质支气管镜治疗或不需要紧急干预的患者,应进行仔细的可弯曲支气管镜和其他检查,以辅助诊断和进行可能的治疗方案的制定。
恶性气道阻塞
可切除肿瘤
对于可切除的肿瘤,彻底的外科切除术加淋巴结清扫术是标准的手术方式。[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com
不可切除肿瘤
恶性肿瘤引起的CAO表现为病情逐渐进展,失去了外科切除肿瘤的机会。
对于中央气道不能切除的肿瘤,维持气道开放可以缓解症状,延长生命,尤其是对于即将出现呼吸衰竭的CAO患者。[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com
对于不可切除肿瘤的治疗,在化疗或放疗前(或治疗失败)可进行介入性支气管镜治疗,可改善呼吸困难,增加拔管率,提高患者生活质量。[27]Cosano Povedano A, Muñoz Cabrera L, Cosano Povedano FJ, et al. Endoscopic treatment of central airway stenosis: five years' experience. Arch Bronconeumol. 2005;41:322-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989889?tool=bestpractice.com
对于可切除肿瘤由于肿瘤高功能性或麻醉风险而不能进行手术者,支气管镜下治疗是外科手术的替代选择。[27]Cosano Povedano A, Muñoz Cabrera L, Cosano Povedano FJ, et al. Endoscopic treatment of central airway stenosis: five years' experience. Arch Bronconeumol. 2005;41:322-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989889?tool=bestpractice.com
已有少量病例经过支气管镜介入治疗后,不可切除肺癌变为可进行手术切除。[27]Cosano Povedano A, Muñoz Cabrera L, Cosano Povedano FJ, et al. Endoscopic treatment of central airway stenosis: five years' experience. Arch Bronconeumol. 2005;41:322-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989889?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Cavaliere S, Foccoli P, Toninelli C, et al. Laser in lung cancer. An 11-year experience with 2253 applications in 1585 patients. J Bronchology. 1996;3:112-115.近期的研究建议,治疗性支气管镜可以作为恶性肿瘤CAO的治愈性切除手术前的补充治疗或与外科联合治疗的一部分。[28]Chhajed PN, Eberhardt R, Dienemann H, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy interventions before surgical resection of lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006;81:1839-1843.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16631682?tool=bestpractice.com
不能手术治疗的肺癌和有症状的气道阻塞患者应接受治疗性支气管镜操作,采用机械或热消融,短距离放射治疗或支架置入,目的是改善呼吸困难,咳嗽,咯血和生活质量。[74]Simoff MJ, Lally B, Slade MG, et al. Symptom management in patients with lung cancer: diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013;143(suppl 5):e455S-e497S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/data/Journals/CHEST/926876/chest_143_5_suppl_e455S.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649452?tool=bestpractice.com
一项800例患者的大规模回顾性研究显示,介入支气管镜操作治疗严重肿物气道阻塞的成功率为85%。[75]Hespanhol V, Magalhães A, Marques A, et al. Neoplastic severe central airways obstruction, interventional bronchoscopy: a decision-making analysis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2013;145:926-932.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23020944?tool=bestpractice.com
非恶性气道阻塞
非恶性肿瘤性气道阻塞的治疗需要与胸外科医生密切合作,重建复杂的气道异常。
呼气相中央气道塌陷的治疗与肺功能损害的严重性,病因,气道狭窄的程度和肺部萎陷的程度有关。气管支气管软化或有症状的动力性气道塌陷可以采用保守治疗,如标准剂量的支气管舒张剂或持续正压通气。[12]Murgu SD, Colt HG. Complications of silicone stent insertion in patients with expiratory central airway collapse. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;84:1870-1877.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18036901?tool=bestpractice.com
对于低危的局灶性气管狭窄患者,外科切除后再吻合术是一线治疗方案。[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com因气管支气管软化或过度动力性气道塌陷引起的呼气相中央气道塌陷,如果患者准备进行气管成形术,临时置入气道支架可改善症状。可以使用多种工具清除阻塞中央气道的异物,如钳子,抓钩或异物篮,Fogarty球囊或冷冻探头。[64]Ko-Pen W, Mehta AC, Turner JF. Flexible bronchoscopy. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2004.
可弯曲和硬质支气管镜操作
支气管镜治疗可以采用可弯曲或硬质支气管镜,改善患者症状,生活质量和生存期。根据可能的内镜下治疗内容,选择适宜的操作技术(热治疗,非热治疗,放射治疗),这取决于多种因素,包括临床表现的剧烈程度,病因和病变类型,患者病情稳定性,一般情况,心肺状态,生活质量,总体预后,医生经验和其掌握治疗技术的情况。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Du Rand IA, Barber PV, Goldring J, et al; BTS Interventional Bronchoscopy Guideline Group. British Thoracic Society guidelines for advanced diagnostic and therapeutic flexible bronchoscopy in adults. Thorax. 2011;66(suppl 3):iii1-iii21.https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/clinical-information/bronchoscopy/advanced-diagnostic-and-therapeutic-bronchoscopy/bts-advanced-bronchoscopy-guideline/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21987439?tool=bestpractice.com
常采用联合多项内镜下技术进行多方式治疗,如激光或电烧灼治疗,并气道支架置入,各项技术互补。[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄:右主支气管吻合口狭窄经多种方式内镜介入治疗后由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].一般来说,内镜下治疗比外科手术治疗风险低,不适感少,不良反应发生率低。
可弯曲支气管镜操作
硬质支气管镜操作
进行诊断和治疗性气道干预时,能有效安全地保障患者气道的通气和氧合。[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.[62]Jeon K, Kim H, Yu CM, et al. Rigid bronchoscopic intervention in patients with respiratory failure caused by malignant central airway obstruction. J Thorac Oncol. 2006;1:319-323.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17409877?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Ayers ML, Beamis JF Jr. Rigid bronchoscopy in the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:355-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444118?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Ko-Pen W, Mehta AC, Turner JF. Flexible bronchoscopy. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2004.[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com
是即将呼吸衰竭的患者进行支气管镜操作的选择方式。
可以使用大通道吸引导管吸出血液和气道残余物,硬镜的金属管可用于扩张狭窄部位,远端斜面也可以作为旋切工具清除肿瘤,开放气道。
需要全身麻醉下并在手术室进行。
硬质支气管镜操作期间,可以采用自主通气,自主辅助通气,控制文丘里喷射通气,高频通气,或闭合通路的正压通气以维持通气。[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Brodsky JB. Bronchoscopic procedures for central airway obstruction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2003;17:638-646.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579222?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Ayers ML, Beamis JF Jr. Rigid bronchoscopy in the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:355-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444118?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Finlayson GN, Brodsky JB. Anesthetic considerations for airway stenting in adult patients. Anesthesiol Clin. 2008;26:281-291.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18456213?tool=bestpractice.com喷射通气用于开放系统,通气接口连接在硬质气管镜近端。一般给予纯氧,喷入压力50psi,频率8-15次/分钟。由于是开放系统,室内空气也会进入气道,因此在气道末端FiO2是不断变化的。潜在的并发症是医源性气胸。[77]Yarmus L, Feller-Kopman D. New bronchoscopic instrumentation: a review and update in rigid bronchoscopy. In: Beamis JF, Mathur P, Mehta AC, eds. Interventional pulmonary medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2009.
禁忌证与麻醉,颈部和下颌解剖相关(例如颈椎不稳定,口腔或上颌面部外伤,颈强直或脊柱后侧凸)。[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Ayers ML, Beamis JF Jr. Rigid bronchoscopy in the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:355-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444118?tool=bestpractice.com
并发症不常见。关于并发症发生率的数据很少,但由有经验的外科医生进行操作,严重并发症罕见。最常见的并发症是术后咽喉痛。其他并发症包括牙齿或牙龈损伤、气管或支气管撕裂和严重出血。低氧血引起的心肌缺血和心律失常是最危险的并发症。与硬质支气管镜检查相关的总体死亡率低至 0.4%。[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Ayers ML, Beamis JF Jr. Rigid bronchoscopy in the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:355-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444118?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Alraiyes AH, Machuzak MS. Rigid bronchoscopy. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;35:671-680.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25463158?tool=bestpractice.com
回顾性研究显示硬质支气管镜操作和机械切除作为单独治疗技术是安全有效的,对于中央气道肿瘤的有效率达83%。[79]Vishwanath G, Madan K, Bal A, et al. Rigid bronchoscopy and mechanical debulking in the management of central airway tumors: an Indian experience. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol. 2013;20:127-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23609246?tool=bestpractice.com
多年来经过不断改进,硬质支气管镜成为一种多功能的工具。[80]Yarmus L, Feller-Kopman D. Bronchoscopes of the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;31;19-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20172429?tool=bestpractice.com常用的硬质支气管镜是Bryan-Dumon II系列和Karl Storz 硬镜。Hemer硬镜可以连接测量管测定吸气压和呼气压,氧浓度和二氧化碳浓度。[81]Dutau H, Vandemoortele T, Breen DP. Rigid bronchoscopy. Clin Chest Med. 2013;34:427-435.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23993814?tool=bestpractice.com
硬质支气管镜检查需要特殊培训。在美国,它的利用度低,因为在所有肺病医学项目中,只有 4.4% 提供硬质支气管镜检查培训,在有介入性肺病学服务的肺病学项目中,有 31.3%。[78]Alraiyes AH, Machuzak MS. Rigid bronchoscopy. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;35:671-680.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25463158?tool=bestpractice.com
内镜下气道热治疗
所有的内镜下热治疗技术均可以在硬质支气管镜或可弯曲支气管镜下操作。
激光治疗[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Beamis JF Jr. Interventional pulmonology techniques for treating malignant large airway obstruction: an update. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2005;11:292-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15928494?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.[64]Ko-Pen W, Mehta AC, Turner JF. Flexible bronchoscopy. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2004.[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Bolliger CT. Laser bronchoscopy, electrocautery, APC and microdebrider. In: Beamis JF, Mathur P, Mehta AC, eds. Interventional pulmonary medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2009.[83]Chua AP, Santacruz JF, Gildea TR. Pulmonary complications of cancer therapy and central airway obstruction. In: Davis M, Feyer P, Ortner P, et al, eds. Supportive oncology. 1st ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2011:309-327.
Nd:YAG激光利用非接触或接触技术从激光发生器传输出激光能量到气道组织,解除恶性和非恶性CAO。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 中央气道阻塞:恶性肿瘤阻塞右主支气管由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 支气管镜下治疗右主支气管阻塞:激光切除由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
可用于紧急情况下,是一种快速切除支气管内病变的完美技术,气道重建成功率为83%-93%,症状缓解率为63%-94%。[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com
为增加成功率并尽量降低风险,应遵循Mehta医生提出的使用激光切除“四项规则”:[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com
肺萎陷时间:< 4周
病变长度:< 4cm
气管插管末端到病变距离:> 4cm
激光导丝末端到病变距离(非接触式):4mm
支气管镜末端到导丝末端距离:4mm
FiO2:< 40%
能量(瓦)-非接触式: 40瓦
能量(瓦)-接触式: 4瓦
脉冲持续:0.4秒
每次清理气道之间的脉冲数:40
在手术室操作时间:< 4小时
操作激光团队人数:4人。
激光切除,组织迅速汽化,组织损伤深度一般是3-4mm。为避免血管穿孔等主要并发症,应熟练了解气道的解剖知识。
由于从组织表面难以准确评估组织损伤的深度,应特别注意直接调整激光光束平行于支气管壁以避免损伤。为了固定气道,准确调整光束,应全身麻醉并使用肌松药物,以避免患者活动(例如咳嗽)。[54]Brodsky JB. Bronchoscopic procedures for central airway obstruction. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2003;17:638-646.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579222?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Ayers ML, Beamis JF Jr. Rigid bronchoscopy in the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:355-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444118?tool=bestpractice.com
唯一的绝对禁忌证是支气管外病变。
一般来说,激光切除的并发症发生率<3%。
并发症包括穿孔(气道,食道或肺动脉),心律失常,气胸(张力性或非张力性),出血,低氧血症,心肌梗死,中风,气体栓塞(继发于导丝头端的气体在压力下通过黏膜,经组织凝血过程形成的支气管血管瘘进入血管)[55]Reddy C, Majid A, Michaud G, et al. Gas embolism following bronchoscopic argon plasma coagulation: a case series. Chest. 2008;134:1066-1069.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18988782?tool=bestpractice.com和支气管内着火。因此推荐激光操作期间FiO2不应超过40%。
虽然没有随机试验对比Nd:YAG激光和其他CAO的治疗方式,但是很多回顾性研究表明激光的治疗是成功的。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Dumon JF, Reboud E, Garbe L, et al. Treatment of tracheobronchial lesions by laser photoresection. Chest. 1982;81:278-284.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7056101?tool=bestpractice.com[85]Cavaliere S, Venuta F, Foccoli P, et al. Endoscopic treatment of malignant airway obstructions in 2,008 patients. Chest. 1996;110:1536-1542.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/pdfaccess.ashx?url=/data/journals/chest/21740/1536.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8989073?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Desai SJ, Mehta AC, VanderBrug Medendorp S, et al. Survival experience following nd:YAG laser photoresection for primary bronchogenic carcinoma. Chest. 1988;94:939-944.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2460297?tool=bestpractice.com
电外科(电烧蚀)[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Beamis JF Jr. Interventional pulmonology techniques for treating malignant large airway obstruction: an update. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2005;11:292-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15928494?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Yarmus L, Feller-Kopman D. Bronchoscopes of the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;31;19-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20172429?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Bolliger CT. Laser bronchoscopy, electrocautery, APC and microdebrider. In: Beamis JF, Mathur P, Mehta AC, eds. Interventional pulmonary medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2009.[87]Sheski FD, Mathur PN. Cryotherapy, electrocautery, and brachytherapy. Clin Chest Med. 1999;20:123-138.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10205722?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Sheski FD, Mathur PN. Endobronchial electrosurgery: argon plasma coagulation and electrocautery. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;25:367-374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16088479?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Coulter TD, Mehta AC. The heat is on: impact of endobronchial electrosurgery on the need for nd-YAG laser photoresection. Chest. 2000;118:516-521.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10936149?tool=bestpractice.com
以接触或非接触式技术,把高频交流电传输到气道组织,以缓解恶性和非恶性CAO。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄:电刀辐射状切开由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
对于气道组织的影响取决于使用能量,作用时间,接触面积和组织类型。电流产生的热量与组织电阻呈正相关,与组织血管和含水量呈反比。
是一种快速切除的完美工具,可以在紧急情况下使用,气道重建率约90%,症状改善率达70%-97%。
在气道内可以使用多种电烧灼器械,例如硬质电烧灼探头和钳子。通过可弯曲支气管镜,可以使用电圈套器,电刀,钝性探头和热活检钳。
使用钝性电烧探头通常能量常设定为 10-40 瓦,使用勒除器或电烙刀也设定为 10-40 瓦。[90]Mahmood K, Wahidi MM. Ablative therapies for central airway obstruction. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;35:681-692.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25463159?tool=bestpractice.com
气道外压性病变是禁忌证。因为潜在的可能出现心律不齐或设备功能异常,安置起搏器或植入式自动心脏复律除颤器(AICDs)患者当需接受电烧灼治疗时,建议必须关闭设备并注意观察。
出血的风险是2%-5%。其他并发症包括支气管内着火,未正确放置地线术者遭电击伤和气道穿孔。因为出血导致电流在经过增大的病变表面弥散,电流降低导致电灼烧失效。
使用激光和氩等离子体凝固时,FiO2一定要低于40%,避免气道着火。
氩等离子体凝固技术(APC)[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Beamis JF Jr. Interventional pulmonology techniques for treating malignant large airway obstruction: an update. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2005;11:292-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15928494?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.[64]Ko-Pen W, Mehta AC, Turner JF. Flexible bronchoscopy. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2004.[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Yarmus L, Feller-Kopman D. Bronchoscopes of the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;31;19-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20172429?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Bolliger CT. Laser bronchoscopy, electrocautery, APC and microdebrider. In: Beamis JF, Mathur P, Mehta AC, eds. Interventional pulmonary medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2009.
APC为非接触式电凝,电离的氩气传导电流到气道组织,是治疗恶性CAO的多种方法之一,也可用于治疗非恶性支气管内疾病,例如肉芽组织增生和气道乳头瘤病。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 中央气道阻塞:恶性肿瘤阻塞右主支气管由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 支气管镜下治疗右主支气管阻塞:氩等离子体凝固由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
由于APC是一种止血效果优良的热凝固技术,且其管腔再通率达91%,因此越来越多的成为了激光和电外科的替代治疗。[91]Morice RC, Ece T, Ece F, et al. Endobronchial argon plasma coagulation for treatment of hemoptysis and neoplastic airway obstruction. Chest. 2001;119:781-787.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11243957?tool=bestpractice.com
根据不同的适应证,可以选择直线、放射状和侧向导流探头。
使用强制模式,能量常设定为 30 瓦,使用脉冲模式,设定为 10 瓦。建议的气流为 0.3-0.8 升/分钟。[90]Mahmood K, Wahidi MM. Ablative therapies for central airway obstruction. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;35:681-692.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25463159?tool=bestpractice.com
虽然APC电极可以弯曲成很锐的角度达到“角落处的病变”,但是因其不能汽化肿瘤组织,所以对于体积较大的肿瘤,需要联合其他技术切除。支气管内肿瘤APC电凝后,术者需要使用吸引,钳子或冷冻探头去除焦痂和残余物。
类似电烧灼,APC的禁忌证是气道外压性病变,也应密切注意安置起搏器或自动心脏复律除颤器(AICDs)的患者。
APC的并发症发生率< 1%,包括出血,气道穿孔和狭窄,支气管内着火,氩气气体栓塞。使用APC时FiO2务必要低于40%,避免气道内着火。
冷冻治疗[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Sheski FD, Mathur PN. Cryotherapy, electrocautery, and brachytherapy. Clin Chest Med. 1999;20:123-138.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10205722?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Mathur PN, Wolf KM, Busk MF, et al. Fiberoptic bronchoscopic cryotherapy in the management of tracheobronchial obstruction. Chest. 1996;110:718-723.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/pdfaccess.ashx?url=/data/journals/chest/21736/718.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8797417?tool=bestpractice.com
冷冻为接触式治疗,冷冻剂(最常用的是一氧化氮)作用到气道组织,一般用于治疗没有呼吸衰竭的恶性和非恶性CAO。
非常适合于清除异物,如血块(通过低温附着力),黏液栓,肉芽组织和息肉样病变,管腔再通率约为80%,症状缓解率70%-93%。
冷冻治疗疗效要在治疗后一段时间才能显现出来,因此气道的冷冻治疗主要用于非急性或重症气道阻塞。文献报道,冷冻治疗一般用于治疗轻度气道狭窄或作为辅助治疗。治疗后1-2周,组织损伤最为明显,并应反复冷冻治疗,以达到最佳疗效。[93]Seaman JC, Musani AI. Endobronchial ablative therapies. Clin Chest Med. 2013;34:417-425.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23993813?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,大量病例报告[94]Boujaoude Z, Young D, Lotano R, et al. Cryosurgery for the immediate treatment of acute central airway obstruction. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol. 2013;20:45-47.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23328143?tool=bestpractice.com和回顾性研究显示使用冻切技术也可达到即刻开通气道的效果。一个225例恶性气道狭窄的大样本回顾性研究发现,使用可弯曲冷冻探头可以安全地进行气道再通,成功率为91%。[95]Schumann C, Hetzel M, Babiak AJ, et al. Endobronchial tumor debulking with a flexible cryoprobe for immediate treatment of malignant stenosis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010;139:997-1000.http://www.jtcvsonline.org/article/S0022-5223%2809%2900877-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19716140?tool=bestpractice.com
冷冻对于气道组织的疗效取决于冷冻-融解循环的次数,达到的温度(一般低于40°C)和组织含水量,快速冷冻并缓慢融解疗效最佳。对冷冻敏感的组织有皮肤,神经,内皮,肉芽组织和黏膜组织。结缔组织,纤维组织,神经鞘,软骨和脂肪对冷冻耐受性好。
冷冻是一项安全的技术,并发症相对少且轻,最常见的并发症是治疗后发热,需要反复随访并用支气管镜清除气道脱落坏死物。冷冻治疗对于支气管壁的损伤有限,不引起再狭窄,气道穿孔的风险也明显减少。
内镜下气道非热治疗
光动力治疗(PDT)[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com
局部或全身注射光敏剂(如二血卟啉酯,DHE)24小时到72小时后,经过可弯曲支气管镜应用特殊波长的光(磷酸钛氧钾(KTP)激光)照射病变。由于肿瘤组织更多摄取光敏剂,利用光毒性反应杀伤肿瘤。
治疗后即刻和治疗后48小时,应进行后续支气管镜治疗(清除肿瘤坏死物,分泌物和脱落黏膜)以开放气道,评估再次治疗的必要性。
适用于没有急性呼吸困难的CAO的缓解治疗,特别适用于支气管内恶性息肉样肿物阻塞远端气道,且外压性狭窄轻的病例。也可以用于治疗已经接受外科手术,放疗或化疗的患者。
由于PDT治疗的延迟反应,不能用于急诊治疗急性重症CAO。
最常见的并发症是皮肤4-6周光敏感,期间应避免阳光暴露。其他并发症有局部气道水肿,收缩,出血,形成瘘,但是PDT引起气道穿孔的风险低。
PDT疗效维持时间相对较长,对于80%患者可以改善气道阻塞。
气道扩张治疗
扩张气道狭窄段可以采用插入硬质支气管镜镜筒扩张或球囊扩张。
硬质支气管镜扩张气道可用于紧急情况下,达到快速开通气道的作用。[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Ayers ML, Beamis JF Jr. Rigid bronchoscopy in the twenty-first century. Clin Chest Med. 2001;22:355-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11444118?tool=bestpractice.com硬质支气管镜末端可以向开瓶器一样扩开气道狭窄段,也可像去除苹果核般旋转穿过阻塞气道的大肿瘤。当肿瘤被穿过出血时,硬质支气管镜的镜筒可以用于填塞止血。大活检钳可以通过硬质支气管镜进入气道,机械清除硬镜旋切后的肿瘤残余物,取出异物或清除血块。在进行硬质支气管镜操作时,可以使用可弯曲支气管镜辅助,清除拐角或气道远端的组织残余物。这些常用技术在多数重症病例都会使用。[26]Ernst A, Simoff M, Ost D, et al. Prospective risk-adjusted morbidity and mortality outcome analysis after therapeutic bronchoscopic procedures: results of a multi-institutional outcomes database. Chest. 2008;134:514-519.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18641088?tool=bestpractice.com
球囊支气管成形术(BBP)可以在透视或非透视情况下。经硬质或可弯曲支气管镜进行轻柔扩张气道,需逐渐增加充入盐水的球囊的直径,在狭窄段维持15-60秒。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[96]Hautmann H, Gamarra F, Pfeifer KJ, et al. Fiberoptic bronchoscopic balloon dilatation in malignant tracheobronchial disease: indications and results. Chest. 2001;120:43-49.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11451814?tool=bestpractice.com[97]McArdle JR, Gildea TR, Mehta AC. Balloon bronchoplasty: its indications, benefits, and complications. J Bronchology. 2005;12:123-127.http://journals.lww.com/bronchology/Fulltext/2005/04000/Balloon_Bronchoplasty__Its_Indications,_Benefits,.18.aspx球囊扩张比硬扩张对黏膜损伤小,导致继发肉芽组织增生轻。球囊气管支气管成形术可以用于治疗恶性,非恶性CAO,外科切除和肺移植后气道狭窄,气管插管后气管狭窄。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 肺移植术后吻合口支气管狭窄:球囊支气管成形术由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].BBP可以即刻改善79%的外压性和内生性恶性CAO病例的气道狭窄,先扩张气道,而后置入支架。因为其效果不能长期维持,BBP治疗后常联合其他治疗,如激光切除,放疗或支架置入。并发症有再狭窄,疼痛,纵隔炎,出血,气道撕裂或断裂,继发气胸或纵隔气肿。
气道支架置入[2]Beamis JF Jr. Interventional pulmonology techniques for treating malignant large airway obstruction: an update. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2005;11:292-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15928494?tool=bestpractice.com[98]Santacruz JF, Folch E, Mehta AC. Silicone and metallic stents in interventional pulmonology. Minerva Pneumol. 2009;48:243-259.[99]Casal RF. Update in airway stents. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2010;16:321-328.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20539232?tool=bestpractice.com
多种材料可以做成气道支架以支撑维持气道的通畅。目前有2种支架(硅酮支架和金属支架,或金属复合支架)广泛用于气道,最常用的是硅酮支架,需要通过硬质支气管镜置入。
硅酮支架(如 Dumon支架 , Montgomery T管, Hood支架, Reynders-Noppen Tygon支架)的并发症有高移位率,支架两端肉芽组织增生阻塞支架,或因损害黏膜纤毛清除系统而影响分泌物排出。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.[64]Ko-Pen W, Mehta AC, Turner JF. Flexible bronchoscopy. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2004.[100]Wood DE, Liu YH, Vallieres E, et al. Airway stenting for malignant and benign tracheobronchial stenosis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;76:167-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12842534?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: X线胸片显示右主支气管支架内黏液堵塞由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
硅酮支架可以用于良性和恶性气道疾病,治疗良性气道狭窄多选择此类支架。
Dumon Y型硅酮支架特别用于治疗恶性肿瘤累及隆突和主支气管。一项回顾性分析研究显示一种新型自膨式金属Y型支架在治疗气道隆突狭窄方面是安全有效的。[101]Gompelmann D, Eberhardt R, Schuhmann M, et al. Self-expanding Y stents in the treatment of central airway stenosis: a retrospective analysis. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2013;7:255-263.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23823488?tool=bestpractice.com
理论上,复合支架结合了硅酮和金属支架的特点(例如覆膜Wallstent, Ultraflex支架, Polyflex支架, Alveolus支架),有非覆膜(金属支架)和覆膜(复合金属支架)类型。覆膜复合支架的优势是通过机械屏障(覆膜)阻止了肿瘤生长。
气道支架置入适用于治疗恶性肿瘤外压性狭窄,以及内生性或混合性恶性气道肿瘤内镜切除后维持气道的通畅。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 中央气道阻塞:恶性肿瘤阻塞右主支气管由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 支气管镜下治疗右主支气管阻塞:支架置入由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].也可以用于治疗肺移植后难治性良性气道狭窄,非恶性CAO当其他治疗都失败时,支架则是唯一选择,但是这种情况下支架置入的并发症发生率达75%。[102]Lunn W, Feller-Kopman D, Wahidi M, et al. Endoscopic removal of metallic airway stents. Chest. 2005;127:2106-2112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15947327?tool=bestpractice.com[103]Gildea TR, Murthy SC, Sahoo D, et al. Performance of a self-expanding silicone stent in palliation of benign airway conditions. Chest. 2006;130:1419-1423.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17099019?tool=bestpractice.com
虽然自膨式金属支架相对容易放置且不需要硬质支气管镜,但是其可能出现严重并发症,用于良性疾病的治疗一定要谨慎。实际上,在2005年FDA已经发布了警告,即金属支架应避免用于良性气道狭窄。
支架可以迅速而持久的改善症状,患者症状的改善率达84%。[104]Saji H, Furukawa K, Tsutsui H, et al. Outcomes of airway stenting for advanced lung cancer with central airway obstruction. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2010;11:425-428.http://icvts.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/4/425.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20656802?tool=bestpractice.com已有资料显示气管支气管支架可以改善进展期恶性肿瘤气道阻塞患者的生存期和生活质量。[100]Wood DE, Liu YH, Vallieres E, et al. Airway stenting for malignant and benign tracheobronchial stenosis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;76:167-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12842534?tool=bestpractice.com[105]Kim JH, Shin JH, Song HY, et al. Use of a retrievable metallic stent internally coated with silicone to treat airway obstruction. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2008;19:1208-1214.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18656015?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Chhajed PN, Baty F, Pless M, et al. Outcome of treated advanced non-small cell lung cancer with and without central airway obstruction. Chest. 2006;130:1803-1807.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17167000?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Furukawa K, Ishida J, Yamaguchi G, et al. The role of airway stent placement in the management of tracheobronchial stenosis caused by inoperable advanced lung cancer. Surg Today. 2010;40:315-320.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20339985?tool=bestpractice.com
要注意支架的并发症发生率很高,特别是长期使用金属或复合支架的患者。[18]Makris D, Marquette CH. Tracheobronchial stenting and central airway replacement. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2007;13:278-283.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17534173?tool=bestpractice.com另外除了前述的并发症,支架还可能出现口臭,支架断裂,金属疲劳,气道和血管穿孔,黏膜撕裂,肺叶管口阻塞等。[17]Bolliger CT, Sutedja TG, Strausz J, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy with immediate effect: laser, electrocautery, argon plasma coagulation and stents. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:1258-1271.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/27/6/1258.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772389?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Simoff MJ, Sterman DH, Ernst A (eds). Thoracic endoscopy. Advances in interventional pulmonology. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2006.[64]Ko-Pen W, Mehta AC, Turner JF. Flexible bronchoscopy. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell; 2004.[108]Mehta AC, Dasgupta A. Airway stents. Clin Chest Med. 1999;20:139-151.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10205723?tool=bestpractice.com
每个放置气道支架的患者都应该给予一张¡®支架警告卡¡¯,注明支架的类型和型号,位置,置入气管支架者如需急诊气管插管的适宜型号。[109]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Airway stents. Clin Chest Med. 2010;31;141-150.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20172440?tool=bestpractice.com
显微电动吸切器[82]Bolliger CT. Laser bronchoscopy, electrocautery, APC and microdebrider. In: Beamis JF, Mathur P, Mehta AC, eds. Interventional pulmonary medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2009.[110]Kennedy MP, Morice RC, Jimenez CA, et al. Treatment of bronchial airway obstruction using a rotating tip microdebrider: a case report. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2007;2:16.http://www.cardiothoracicsurgery.org/content/2/1/16http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17386099?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Lunn W, Bagherzadegan N, Munjampalli SKJ, et al. Initial experience with a rotating airway microdebrider. J Bronchology. 2008;15:91-94.http://journals.lww.com/bronchology/Fulltext/2008/04000/Initial_Experience_With_a_Rotating_Airway.7.aspx
电动旋转刀片可准确清除气道内阻塞,并可同时吸引,在最小损伤情况下快速清除血液和气道内残余物,但是切除的组织可能不适合病理检查。
显微电动吸切器的刀片可以是平滑的或锯齿状的,有 2个长度可以选择:37cm可到达气管内病变和近端支气管,45cm可以到达远端气道病变。常用刀片速度是1000-2000rpm。
可以用于治疗声门下狭窄,气管、主支气管和远端支气管内的肉芽组织增生和恶性肿瘤。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 中央气道阻塞:恶性肿瘤阻塞右主支气管由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 支气管镜下治疗右主支气管阻塞:机械减容后由 Jose Fernando Santacruz MD, FCCP, DAABIP 和 Erik Folch MD, MSc 提供;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].
显微电动吸切器适合用于肺储备能力差的患者,因为切除肿瘤时不需要降低FiO2。
有大约35%的患者可能同时需要电烧灼来止血。
一项回顾性研究发现,显微电动吸切器是治疗良性和恶性中央气道阻塞安全且有效的技术。[112]Casal RF, Iribarren J, Eapen G, et al. Safety and effectiveness of microdebrider bronchoscopy for the management of central airway obstruction. Respirology. 2013;18:1011-1015.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23520982?tool=bestpractice.com
内镜下气道放射治疗(短距离放射治疗)
支气管内照射,通过将放射性物质(最常用铱-192)直接植入肿瘤或经过可弯曲支气管镜近距离照射气道肿瘤,导致DNA突变,细胞凋亡,以破坏组织。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bolliger CT, Mathur PN, Beamis JF, et al. ERS/ATS statement on interventional pulmonology. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:356-373.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/2/356.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11866017?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Folch E, Mehta AC. Airway interventions in the tracheobronchial tree. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;29:441-452.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18651361?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Seijo LM, Sterman DH. Interventional pulmonology. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:740-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11236779?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Ernst A, Silvestri GA, Johnstone D. Interventional pulmonary procedures: guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians. Chest. 2003;123:1693-1717.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12740291?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Sheski FD, Mathur PN. Cryotherapy, electrocautery, and brachytherapy. Clin Chest Med. 1999;20:123-138.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10205722?tool=bestpractice.com
短距离放射治疗适用于缓解气道阻塞的相关症状(特别是呼吸困难,咳嗽和咯血)。高剂量短距离放射治疗也能有效治疗肺移植术后吻合口肉芽组织过度增生或气道支架置入的并发症。[13]Santacruz JF, Mehta AC. Airway complications and management after lung transplantation: ischemia, dehiscence, and stenosis. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2009;6:79-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131533?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Kennedy AS, Sonett JR, Orens JB, et al. High dose rate brachytherapy to prevent recurrent benign hyperplasia in lung transplant bronchi: theoretical and clinical considerations. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2000;19:155-159.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10703691?tool=bestpractice.com[114]Tendulkar RD, Fleming PA, Reddy CA, et al. High-dose-rate endobronchial brachytherapy for recurrent airway obstruction from hyperplastic granulation tissue. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008;70:701-706.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17904764?tool=bestpractice.com
由于短距离放射治疗的效果3周后才能出现,故不适合急诊治疗急性重症CAO。短距离放射治疗疗效持久,管腔再通率78%-85%,症状缓解率为69%-93%。中位生存期改善:有低质量证据显示肺癌导致的近端气道阻塞的患者,接受包括大剂量支气管内放疗的多方式治疗后,中位生存期增加到7.8个月,而历史对照组中位生存期为3.9个月。[115]Manali ED, Stathopoulos GT, Gildea TR, et al. High dose-rate endobronchial radiotherapy for proximal airway obstruction due to lung cancer: 8-year experience of a referral center. Cancer Biother Radiopharm. 2010;25:207-213.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20423234?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
短距离放射治疗的优势是可以用于其他治疗方法不能达到的肿瘤部位(例如上叶支气管和段支气管)。短距离放射治疗通过支气管内低剂量率(LDR)或高剂量率(HDR)方法给予照射,高剂量支气管内短距离放射治疗照射时间短,可用于门诊治疗。
短距离放射治疗可以同其他技术联合应用并有协同作用,如激光治疗或外照射。
这项技术的并发症有咯血(尤其是右上叶,左上叶,常大出血),纵隔瘘,心律不齐,低血压,支气管痉挛,支气管狭窄或坏死,放射性支气管炎。多达32%的病例会出现致死性咯血,但是,鉴别出血是因放射导致还是肿瘤本身所致很困难。
体外照射(EBR)
虽然EBR是肺癌已确定的治疗,用于治疗不能手术的非小细胞肺癌,但是EBR治疗恶性CAO的疗效延迟且不确定。
随着介入支气管镜技术的进展,恶性CAO的治疗从EBR转移到支气管镜下治疗,在介入呼吸病学中心,支气管镜下治疗已经成为一线治疗。[1]Ernst A, Feller-Kopman D, Becker HD, et al. Central airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;169:1278-1297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187010?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Wahidi MM, Herth FJ, Ernst A. State of the art: interventional pulmonology. Chest. 2007;131:261-274.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17218585?tool=bestpractice.comEBR有时可以作为支气管镜介入治疗后稳定期患者的治疗,以强化治疗的疗效。
EBR的主要局限因素是正常组织不需要的射线暴露,如肺实质,心脏,脊柱和食管。大约50%接受局部EBR治疗的患者在照射区出现放射性损伤。
EBR治疗咯血的成功率为84%,但是治疗气道阻塞和肺不张的有效率只有大约20%。
外科手术治疗
虽然外科手术治疗是恶性和非恶性CAO的最佳治疗方式,但是由于发病时恶性肿瘤的进展程度,良性疾病的特点,以及伴随疾病的情况,使得很多患者不适合手术治疗。[62]Jeon K, Kim H, Yu CM, et al. Rigid bronchoscopic intervention in patients with respiratory failure caused by malignant central airway obstruction. J Thorac Oncol. 2006;1:319-323.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17409877?tool=bestpractice.com[116]Husain SA, Finch D, Ahmed M, et al. Long-term follow-up of ultraflex metallic stents in benign and malignant central airway obstruction. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;83:1251-1256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17383321?tool=bestpractice.com
良性CAO的外科治疗专业性很强,需要具有丰富治疗复杂气道疾病经验的胸外科专家进行治疗。[117]Grillo HC, Mathisen DJ, Wain JC. Management of tumors of the trachea. Oncology (Williston Park). 1992;6:61-67.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1313276?tool=bestpractice.com外科手术的目的是增加可能的气道管径,或切除狭窄段,所以最常用的术式是断端吻合术或气管袖状切除。
恶性气道阻塞
外科手术是早期非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)的治疗选择,IA期5年生存率> 70%。[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Chhajed PN, Eberhardt R, Dienemann H, et al. Therapeutic bronchoscopy interventions before surgical resection of lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg. 2006;81:1839-1843.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16631682?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Hanley ME, Welsh CH. Current diagnosis & treatment in pulmonary medicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003.因80%就诊患者为III期或IV期,5年总生存率只有4%。[21]Lee P, Kupeli E, Mehta AC. Therapeutic bronchoscopy in lung cancer: laser therapy, electrocautery, brachytherapy, stents, and photodynamic therapy. Clin Chest Med. 2002;23:241-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11901914?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Hanley ME, Welsh CH. Current diagnosis & treatment in pulmonary medicine. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003.[119]Schuurmans MM, Michaud GC, Diacon AH, et al. Use of an ultrathin bronchoscope in the assessment of central airway obstruction. Chest. 2003;124:735-739.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12907567?tool=bestpractice.com所以,对于多数进展期肺癌患者,治疗重点是缓解症状,改善生活质量。
非恶性气道阻塞
虽然外科切除术和吻合术是良性气管收缩性狭窄的治疗选择术式,但是只有大约50%的患者适合进行气管切除,目前尚无满意的气管替代物来开展更大范围的气管切除。[116]Husain SA, Finch D, Ahmed M, et al. Long-term follow-up of ultraflex metallic stents in benign and malignant central airway obstruction. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;83:1251-1256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17383321?tool=bestpractice.com