一定要与传染病学专家一起治疗疟疾。 当地指南一般包括寻求建议的联系人详情。 大多数指南相似,但因各地药物的许可范围不同而有所差异。 以下内容基于美国疾病预防控制中心 (CDC) 和世界卫生组织 (WHO) 的指南。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html
WHO: guidelines for the treatment of malaria - third edition
CDC: malaria
疾病管理的综述
治疗取决于感染疟原虫的种类,在血涂片中发现(寄生虫百分比,裂殖体和裂殖体的存在),和患者的临床状态。 根据获得感染地区的已知的流行病学调查,选择相对敏感的抗疟药物。 除非在特殊情况下,在确认疟疾感染之前,不能开始疟疾的特异治疗。 因此,治疗的目标是消除疟原虫,减少并发症的发生,尽可能快地减少寄生虫负荷,选择联合治疗防止耐药。
青蒿素衍生物(例如青蒿琥酯和蒿甲醚)是青蒿植物(黄花蒿)的提取物。这些药物可清除血液中的寄生虫,从而快速起效,是目前已知的最有效的抗疟药物。为了防止后期复发和出现耐药,必须与其他抗疟药物联合使用;[74]Adjuik M, Babiker A, Garner P, et al. Artesunate combinations for treatment of malaria: meta-analysis. Lancet. 2004 Jan 3;363(9402):9-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14723987?tool=bestpractice.com 不推荐采用口服单药治疗。[75]World Health Organization. Malaria: withdrawal of oral artemisinin-based monotherapies. Oct 2017 [internet publication].http://www.who.int/malaria/areas/treatment/withdrawal_of_oral_artemisinin_based_monotherapies/en/ 以青蒿素为基础的联合疗法 (ACT) 还可减少配子体携带,从而减少传播的风险,这在疫区很重要。[76]Price RN, Nosten F, Luxemburger C, et al. Effects of artemisinin derivatives on malaria transmissibility. Lancet. 1996 Jun 15;347(9016):1654-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8642959?tool=bestpractice.com 有证据表明,他们对于疟疾流行区的无合并症的疟疾患者和无宿主免疫的旅行者,是安全和有效的。[77]Sinclair D, Zani B, Donegan S, et al. Artemisinin-based combination therapy for treating uncomplicated malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jul 8;(3):CD007483.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007483.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19588433?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Hatz C, Soto J, Nothdurft HD, et al. Treatment of acute uncomplicated falciparum malaria with artemether-lumefantrine in nonimmune populations: a safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetic study. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008 Feb;78(2):241-7.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/journals/10.4269/ajtmh.2008.78.241#html_fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18256423?tool=bestpractice.com 也有强有力的证据证明,重症疟疾静脉注射青蒿琥酯疗效优于静脉应用奎宁。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 [
]What are the effects of artesunate versus quinine in people with severe malaria?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1197/full显示答案 有报道:在经过青蒿素类药物治疗后返回的患者出现了严重的,迟发的溶血。[79]Zoller T, Junghanss T, Kapaun A, et al. Intravenous artesunate for severe malaria in travelers, Europe. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011 May;17(5):771-7.https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/17/5/10-1229_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21529383?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Kreeftmeijer-Vegter AR, van Genderen PJ, Visser LG, et al. Treatment outcome of intravenous artesunate in patients with severe malaria in the Netherlands and Belgium. Malar J. 2012 Mar 31;11:102.https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-11-102http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22462806?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Rolling T, Schmiedel S, Wichmann D, et al. Post-treatment haemolysis in severe imported malaria after intravenous artesunate: case report of three patients with hyperparasitaemia. Malar J. 2012 May 17;11:169.https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-11-169http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22594446?tool=bestpractice.com 基于这一发现,欧洲中心建议静脉注射青蒿琥酯治疗的患者需连续4周监测血红蛋白水平。[82]Askling HH, Bruneel F, Burchard G, et al. Management of imported malaria in Europe. Malar J. 2012 Sep 17;11:328.https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-11-328http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22985344?tool=bestpractice.com
如果不及时治疗恶性疟原虫,可能迅速出现致命的并发症。原因在于,早期表面健康患者可以快速发生危及生命的并发症,即便短暂延迟治疗也会增加并发症发病率和死亡率。[31]Greenberg AE, Lobel HO. Mortality from plasmodium falciparum malaria in travelers from the United States, 1959 to 1987. Ann Intern Med. 1990 Aug 15;113(4):326-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2197915?tool=bestpractice.com 尤其是高危人群:包括无宿主免疫的旅客,孕妇,儿童和老年人。[11]Luxemburger C, Ricci F, Nosten F, et al. The epidemiology of severe malaria in an area of low transmission in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1997 May-Jun;91(3):256-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9231189?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Moore DA, Jennings RM, Doherty TF, et al. Assessing the severity of malaria. BMJ. 2003 Apr 12;326(7393):808-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1125716/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12689980?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Hammerich A, Campbell OM, Chandramohan D. Unstable malaria transmission and maternal mortality - experiences from Rwanda. Trop Med Int Health. 2002 Jul;7(7):573-6.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00898.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12100439?tool=bestpractice.com 多数权威人士推荐旅行者发生恶性疟原虫疟疾后应住院治疗。在一些专门中心进行的数项观察研究发现,恶性疟疾可以在门诊治疗,但在没有专业人员时,目前尚不清楚具体的安全治疗标准。[83]D'Acremont V, Landry P, Mueller I, et al. Clinical and laboratory predictors of imported malaria in an outpatient setting: an aid to medical decision making in returning travelers with fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002 May;66(5):481-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12201580?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Melzer M, Lacey S, Rait G. The case for outpatient treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in a selected UK immigrant population. J Infect. 2009 Oct;59(4):259-63.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19706306?tool=bestpractice.com[85]Toovey S. Effectiveness of co-artemether in an unsupervised outpatient setting for the treatment of falciparum malaria. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2008 Jan-Mar;6(1-2):29-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18342270?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Briand V, Bouchaud O, Tourret J, et al. Hospitalization criteria in imported falciparum malaria. J Travel Med. 2007 Sep-Oct;14(5):306-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17883461?tool=bestpractice.com 在门诊管理时,应每日复查血涂片。[82]Askling HH, Bruneel F, Burchard G, et al. Management of imported malaria in Europe. Malar J. 2012 Sep 17;11:328.https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-11-328http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22985344?tool=bestpractice.com
无并发症疟疾患者可口服抗疟治疗,如果病人不能耐受口服治疗或是出现重症表现的患者建议应用静脉抗疟药。 支持治疗非常重要,在重症疟疾往往需要入住ICU治疗。
非恶性疟由间日疟原虫、卵形疟原虫、三日疟原虫或诺氏疟原虫导致,很少危及生命,若无合并症通常可以在门诊处理。在感染间日疟原虫或者卵形疟原虫时,应当检查葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶 (G6PD) 水平,因为需要使用伯氨喹治疗根除休眠子,但当患者缺乏 G6PD 时可能发生溶血。
如果不能鉴别种属,应当按照恶性疟原虫感染治疗患者。[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html
重症疟疾管理的一般方法
重症疟疾均是由恶性疟原虫感染引起。 当患者满足下列一条或多条标准时,为重症疟疾。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1
临床特征
意识受损(即:在成人中格拉斯哥昏迷评分<11 或在儿童中 Blantyre 评分<3)
极度乏力(患者无法自行站立及坐起来)
频发惊厥(24小时以内2次以上)
深呼吸,呼吸窘迫(代谢性酸中毒呼吸))
循环衰竭或休克 - 成人收缩压<80 mmHg,儿童<70 mmHg(失代偿性休克);毛细血管再充盈≥3 秒或腿上(中至近端肢体)存在温度梯度,没有低血压(代偿性休克)
黄疸的临床体征
明显出血(例如:牙龈、鼻或静脉穿刺部位反复或长时间出血;呕血;黑粪)
肺水肿(放射学检查有发现或在室内空气下氧饱和度<92%,呼吸频率>30 次/分,经常伴有胸部凹陷和听诊捻发音)
实验室检查结果
低血糖(血糖值 <40 mg/dL [<2.2 mmol/L])
代谢性酸中毒(血浆碳酸氢根 <15 mEq/L [<15 mmol/L])
重度疟疾贫血(12 岁以下儿童:Hb≤5 g/dL 或红细胞压积≤15%;成人:Hb<7 g/dL 或红细胞压积<20%)并且寄生虫计数>10,000/μL
血清胆红素>3 mg/dL [>50 μmol/L],寄生虫计数>100,000/μL
高寄生虫血症(>10%)
肾脏损害(血清肌酐>3 mg/dL [265 μmol/L])。
在无免疫力患者中(例如旅行者)和低传播环境的人群中,寄生虫血症>2% 与重症疾病风险增加相关。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1
病情严重的患者应给予积极静脉抗疟治疗并转ICU重症监护和支持。[30]World Health Organization, Communicable Diseases Cluster. Severe falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2000 Apr;94(suppl 1):S1-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11103309?tool=bestpractice.com 静脉用药吸收较好,可尽快减少寄生虫数量。 对于高寄生虫负荷的患者采用换血疗法存在争议,一般不推荐。 延迟抗疟治疗可能会增加发病率和死亡率。[31]Greenberg AE, Lobel HO. Mortality from plasmodium falciparum malaria in travelers from the United States, 1959 to 1987. Ann Intern Med. 1990 Aug 15;113(4):326-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2197915?tool=bestpractice.com 下面详细介绍了具体的方案。
支持治疗是非常重要的,其目的是改善上述并发症。 这包括仔细的液体管理,肾脏支持;气道保护;控制癫痫发作和输注血制品。 奎宁引起的高胰岛素血症可以加重低血糖,所以应密切监测。
单纯性恶性疟原虫感染:非妊娠
氯喹耐药普遍存在于世界大部分地区。 因此,建议采用以下任一种 CDC 或 WHO 支持的口服方案:[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html
除了以甲氟喹为基础的方案外,其他方案都是同等推荐。 只有其他治疗选择不可用时(由于不良反应发生率增加以及担心出现长期或永久性神经精神并发症),才使用以甲氟喹为基础的方案。[87]US Food and Drug Administration. Mefloquine hydrochloride: drug safety communication - FDA approves label changes for antimalarial drug mefloquine hydrochloride due to risk of serious psychiatric and nerve side effects. Jul 2013 [internet publication].https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm362227.htm
尽管 WHO 同等推荐上述 ACT 方案;但有一些来自非洲研究的证据表明,与蒿甲醚/本芴醇方案相比,双氢青蒿素加哌喹可以降低总的治疗失败率,尽管失败率一般都较低(即<5%)。[88]Zani B, Gathu M, Donegan S, et al. Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for treating uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jan 20;(1):CD010927.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010927/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24443033?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How does dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine compare with artemether-lumefantrine in people with uncomplicated falciparum malaria?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1240/full显示答案 此外,一项瑞典的回顾性比较分析结果发现,非免疫成人(尤其是男性)的蒿甲醚/苯芴醇的症状性晚期治疗失败率很高。本研究发现该药物的疗效为 94.7%,而其他口服方案的疗效为 99.5%。[89]Sondén K, Wyss K, Jovel I, et al. High rate of treatment failures in nonimmune travelers treated with artemether-lumefantrine for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Sweden: retrospective comparative analysis of effectiveness and case series. Clin Infect Dis. 2017 Jan 15;64(2):199-206.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27986683?tool=bestpractice.com 柬埔寨报道了对双氢青蒿素加哌喹的耐药性。[90]Amaratunga C, Lim P, Suon S, et al. Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Cambodia: a multisite prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016 Mar;16(3):357-65.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4792715/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26774243?tool=bestpractice.com延长 QTc 间期和心动过速是与使用含有哌喹的联合疗法相关的常见不良反应,这些药物在有心血管疾病病史(或家族史)的患者中禁用。然而,一项系统评价发现,双氢青蒿素加哌喹的标准 3 天疗程治疗后因复极相关的快速性心律失常引起的不明原因猝死非常罕见,且风险不高于年龄 <35 岁的一般人群心源性猝死的基线发生率。尽管如此,还是建议采用常规监控预防措施。[91]Chan XHS, Win YN, Mawer LJ, et al. Risk of sudden unexplained death after use of dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for malaria: a systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Aug;18(8):913-23.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6060085/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29887371?tool=bestpractice.com
在下列地区获得的感染,尚未报告有临床意义的氯喹耐药现象:中美洲部分地区(巴拿马运河西部)、海地和多米尼加共和国以及中东某些地区。在这些地区获得的感染可以被假定为氯喹敏感,可选用氯喹(首选)或羟氯喹治疗(总共 3 次给药)。在英国,并未批准这一治疗方法,不推荐氯喹用于治疗恶性疟原虫。
在低传播地区,WHO 推荐伯氨喹单次给药与青蒿素联合疗法 (ACT) 以减少传播,但孕妇、6 月龄以下婴儿以及哺乳 6 月龄以下婴儿的妇女除外。这些患者不需要进行葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶 (G6PD) 缺乏的检测。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 这种方案被认为能够快速降低感染性和蚊子可获得的配子体数量,在人群水平上,是预消除或消除项目的一个有用组成部分。 一项研究发现,伯氨喹单次给药,作为杀配子体药使用,不太可能导致严重毒性,即使在 G6PD 缺乏患者中。[92]Ashley EA, Recht J, White NJ. Primaquine: the risks and the benefits. Malar J. 2014 Nov 3;13:418.http://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-13-418http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25363455?tool=bestpractice.com一项 Cochrane 评价发现,单次低剂量的伯氨喹(加入 ACT) 与高剂量一样有效,并在第 3-4 天和第 8 天降低了人对蚊子的传染性。 [
]What are the benefits and harms of primaquine for reducing transmission of Plasmodium falciparum?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.2025/full显示答案 没有证据表明使用该剂量时溶血增加;然而,应当注意的是,很少有 G6PD 缺乏症患者被纳入临床试验中。目前尚不清楚这是否会减少疟疾在社区中的传播。[93]Graves PM, Choi L, Gelband H, et al. Primaquine or other 8-aminoquinolines for reducing Plasmodium falciparum transmission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Feb 2;(2):CD008152.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008152.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29393511?tool=bestpractice.com
复杂性恶性疟原虫感染:非妊娠
重症疟疾属于医疗急症。 应考虑收入ICU病房。 但伴有高寄生虫血症,黄疸,贫血,肾功能损害的患者,不一定需要重症监护;但这往往提示伴有其它并发症。 一些病人可以在专科病房或高护理病房治疗。 可以与传染病专科医师谈论是否需入住重症监护病房。
重症恶性疟原虫感染的推荐方案
首选方案不可用时的替代方案
在低传播地区,WHO 推荐伯氨喹联合 ACT 单次给药,以减少传播,但孕妇、6 月龄以下婴儿以及哺乳 6 月龄以下婴儿的妇女除外。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1一项 Cochrane 评价发现,单次低剂量的伯氨喹(加入 ACT) 与高剂量一样有效,并在第 3-4 天和第 8 天降低了人对蚊子的传染性。 [
]What are the benefits and harms of primaquine for reducing transmission of Plasmodium falciparum?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.2025/full显示答案 没有证据表明使用该剂量时溶血增加;然而,应当注意的是,很少有 G6PD 缺乏症患者被纳入临床试验中。目前尚不清楚这是否会减少疟疾在社区中的传播。[93]Graves PM, Choi L, Gelband H, et al. Primaquine or other 8-aminoquinolines for reducing Plasmodium falciparum transmission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Feb 2;(2):CD008152.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008152.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29393511?tool=bestpractice.com
非恶性疟原虫感染:非妊娠
大多数非恶性疟原虫感染都没有并发症。三日疟原虫、间日疟原虫、卵形疟原虫或者诺氏疟原虫感染应口服氯喹治疗(首选)或口服羟氯喹治疗,总共给药 3 次。诺氏疟原虫见于东南亚部分地区,每 24 小时为一个繁殖周期,因此,快速诊断和及时治疗非常重要。[95]Cox-Singh J, Davis TM, Lee KS, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans is widely distributed and potentially life threatening. Clin Infect Dis. 2008 Jan 15;46(2):165-71.https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/46/2/165/453800/Plasmodium-knowlesi-Malaria-in-Humans-Is-Widelyhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18171245?tool=bestpractice.com
至少已经在 24 个国家/地区观察到使用氯喹治疗(或预防)间日疟原虫疟疾失败,尤其是在印度尼西亚和巴布亚新几内亚。[96]Sumawinata IW, Bernadeta, Leksana B, et al. Very high risk of therapeutic failure with chloroquine for uncomplicated plasmodium falciparum and P vivax malaria in Indonesian Papua. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003 Apr;68(4):416-20.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/journals/10.4269/ajtmh.2003.68.416#html_fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12875290?tool=bestpractice.com 对氯喹标准治疗无反应的患者应使用下列替代口服方案之一:[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html
间日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫治疗后应口服伯氨喹 14 天,以消除肝内休眠子孢子。伯氨喹的杀休眠子活性主要是影响给药总剂量的一个变量。因东南亚地区复发几率较高,因此 WHO 建议该地区治疗要加大剂量,这也体现在 CDC 的推荐建议中。[97]John GK, Douglas NM, von Seidlein L, et al. Primaquine radical cure of Plasmodium vivax: a critical review of the literature. Malar J. 2012 Aug 17;11:280.https://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-11-280http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22900786?tool=bestpractice.com 少于14天的疗程与复发率增加有关。[98]Galappaththy GN, Tharyan P, Kirubakaran R. Primaquine for preventing relapse in people with Plasmodium vivax malaria treated with chloroquine. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Oct 26;(10):CD004389.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004389.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24163057?tool=bestpractice.com 每周一剂可能与14天疗程效果相当,且可能有更好的耐受性,但是,目前还没有足够的证据来支持这一方案。
伯氨喹可能导致 G6PD 缺乏症患者发生溶血性贫血;因此,如有条件,患者开始治疗前必须接受筛查。在热带地区,常见的不同遗传学 G6PD 变异型超过 180 种,基因变异频率在 3% 至 30% 之间。[92]Ashley EA, Recht J, White NJ. Primaquine: the risks and the benefits. Malar J. 2014 Nov 3;13:418.http://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-13-418http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25363455?tool=bestpractice.com 溶血程度取决于 G6PD 缺乏的程度以及暴露剂量和持续时间。 最普遍的两种 G6PD 变异型是地中海变异型(见于欧洲、西亚和中亚以及印度北部),可引起最严重的缺乏,还有一种是非洲 A 变异型(见于撒哈拉以南非洲和非洲裔美国人),引起的缺乏最轻。[92]Ashley EA, Recht J, White NJ. Primaquine: the risks and the benefits. Malar J. 2014 Nov 3;13:418.http://malariajournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2875-13-418http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25363455?tool=bestpractice.com 已经在感染间日疟并患有轻度 G6PD 变异型的患者中使用过根治方案(每周一次给药)。因为溶血具有自限性,每次给药后的网织细胞过多症可代偿溶血,越来越年轻的红细胞群逐渐对药物的溶血作用产生耐受。WHO 推荐采用下列选择:[99]World Health Organization. Testing for G6PD deficiency for safe use of primaquine in radical cure of P. vivax and P. ovale. Oct 2016 [internet publication].https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/g6pd-testing-pq-radical-cure-vivax/en/
伯氨喹不应当用于孕妇,以防存在未检出的胎儿 G6PD 缺乏,导致溶血。[100]Hill DR, Baird JK, Parise ME, et al. Primaquine: report from CDC expert meeting on malaria chemoprophylaxis I. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006 Sep;75(3):402-15.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/journals/10.4269/ajtmh.2006.75.402#html_fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16968913?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠期管理的评述
妊娠期疟疾的治疗需由传染病专科医师共同商议。
妊娠期疟疾可引起胎儿和孕妇并发症发生率和死亡率升高。孕妇发生重症疟疾、贫血和死亡的风险增加。感染的红细胞在胎盘中黏附滞留,扰乱孕妇与胎儿之间的营养交换。对胎儿结局的不良影响包括流产、死产和低出生体重的风险增加。[61]Rogerson SJ, Hviid L, Duffy PE,et al. Malaria in pregnancy: pathogenesis and immunity. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007 Feb;7(2):105-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17251081?tool=bestpractice.com[101]Desai M, ter Kuile FO, Nosten F, et al. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007 Feb;7(2):93-104.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17251080?tool=bestpractice.com[102]Moore KA, Simpson JA, Scoullar MJL, et al. Quantification of the association between malaria in pregnancy and stillbirth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2017 Nov;5(11):e1101-12.https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(17)30340-6/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28967610?tool=bestpractice.com与营养充足且未感染的女性相比,营养不良(定义为上臂中部臂围低或体重指数低)且感染疟疾的孕妇分娩出生体重低的胎儿的风险增加;然而,未发现疟疾与营养不良之间有协同关系,这表明这两个因素独立影响胎儿的生长。[103]Cates JE, Unger HW, Briand V, et al. Malaria, malnutrition, and birthweight: a meta-analysis using individual participant data. PLoS Med. 2017 Aug 8;14(8):e1002373.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5549702/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28792500?tool=bestpractice.com
大多数抗疟药用于妊娠期的安全性、有效性和药代动力学缺乏充足信息,尤其是在妊娠早期使用时。被认为可安全用于妊娠期的药物包括:ACT、奎宁(或奎尼丁)、克林霉素、氯喹和羟氯喹。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 伯氨喹在未检测胎儿 G6PD 缺乏的情况下有溶血风险,应避免使用。[104]Newman RD, Parise ME, Slutsker L, et al. Safety, efficacy and determinants of effectiveness of antimalarial drugs during pregnancy: implications for prevention programmes in Plasmodium falciparum-endemic sub-Saharan Africa. Trop Med Int Health. 2003 Jun;8(6):488-506.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01066.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12791054?tool=bestpractice.com 阿托伐醌/氯胍由于缺乏妊娠期安全性数据,故不推荐用于孕妇。 四环素类药物也不建议用于妊娠期间。 甲氟喹可以用于妊娠中期和晚期。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1
方案的选择取决于妊娠分期、病原体以及感染是复杂性还是单纯性。
单纯性恶性疟原虫感染:妊娠
早期妊娠:
奎宁加克林霉素是 WHO 和疾病预防控制中心 (CDC) 推荐的一线选择。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1[105]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 3: alternatives for pregnant women and treatment of severe malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians3.html妊娠早期使用奎宁的观察性数据提示,死胎、流产和早产是蒿甲醚/本芴醇的两倍多。这些数据非常有可能审查奎宁作为一线药物将来用于早期妊娠的作用。
CDC 还推荐在妊娠早期使用甲氟喹。[105]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 3: alternatives for pregnant women and treatment of severe malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians3.html
如果一线选择不可用或治疗失败,也可以考虑 ACT 作为替代选择。由于青蒿素衍生物用于妊娠早期缺乏充分的安全性数据,指南制定者不能对其使用作出推荐。然而,对 700 多例在妊娠早期暴露于 ACT 的妇女已发表的前瞻性数据进行了安全性评估,并未发现青蒿素衍生物对妊娠或胎儿或新生儿健康有任何不良影响。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 CDC 特别推荐蒿甲醚/本芴醇。[106]Ballard SB, Salinger A, Arguin PM, et al. Updated CDC recommendations for using artemether-lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in pregnant women in the United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018 Apr 13;67(14):424-31.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5898222/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29649190?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠中期和晚期:
目前证据提示,ACT 应当用于治疗妊娠中期和晚期单纯性恶性疟。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1[107]Kovacs SD, van Eijk AM, Sevene E, et al. The safety of artemisinin derivatives for the treatment of malaria in the 2nd or 3rd trimester of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2016 Nov 8;11(11):e0164963.http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0164963http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27824884?tool=bestpractice.com CDC 特别推荐蒿甲醚/本芴醇。[106]Ballard SB, Salinger A, Arguin PM, et al. Updated CDC recommendations for using artemether-lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria in pregnant women in the United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018 Apr 13;67(14):424-31.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5898222/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29649190?tool=bestpractice.com
青蒿素衍生物用于妊娠中期和晚期的经验越来越令人放心,没有报告孕妇或胎儿/婴儿有不良反应。[108]Pekyi D, Ampromfi AA, Tinto H, et al; PREGACT Study Group. Four artemisinin-based treatments in African pregnant women with malaria. N Engl J Med. 2016 Mar 10;374(10):913-27.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1508606#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26962727?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Kakuru A, Jagannathan P, Muhindo MK, et al. Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the prevention of malaria in pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 2016 Mar 10;374(10):928-39.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1509150#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26962728?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Desai M, Gutman J, L'Ianziva A, et al. Intermittent screening and treatment or intermittent preventive treatment with dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine versus intermittent preventive treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine for the control of malaria during pregnancy in western Kenya: an open-label, three-group, randomised controlled superiority trial. Lancet. 2015 Dec 19;386(10012):2507-19.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26429700?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Burger RJ, van Eijk AM, Bussink M, et al. Artemisinin-based combination therapy versus quinine or other combinations for treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the second and third trimester of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015 Nov 12;3(1):ofv170.https://academic.oup.com/ofid/article/2460402/Artemisinin-Based-Combination-Therapy-Versushttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26788543?tool=bestpractice.com 尤其是,双氢青蒿素加哌喹和蒿甲醚/本芴醇的安全性和副作用特征优于其他 ACT。双氢青蒿素加哌喹也已被用于临床试验环境,根据 WHO 对高传播环境的指导方针,其作为孕妇的间歇预防性治疗使用,具有较好的有效性和安全性特征。
妊娠期间最有效的 ACT 给药组合尚不确定。 与非妊娠妇女相比,达到的 ACT 总药物浓度较低。与静脉使用青蒿琥酯相比,在某些情况下报告的有效性较低。[101]Desai M, ter Kuile FO, Nosten F, et al. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007 Feb;7(2):93-104.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17251080?tool=bestpractice.com 妊娠期间发生的分布容积增加和其他生理变化会改变药物代谢,因而需要前瞻性药代动力学研究改善治疗。 在出现青蒿素耐药的地区,这尤其重要,在这些地区,亚治疗水平会进一步促进耐药出现,导致治疗失败。
如果不能给予 ACT,口服奎宁加克林霉素是建议的替代方案。 由于奎宁治疗会引起反复发作的低血糖症,应当定期监测血糖水平。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1
甲氟喹被认为可安全治疗妊娠中期和晚期疟疾,可以联合或不联合青蒿素衍生物给药。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 只有其他治疗选择不可用时(由于不良反应发生率增加以及担心出现长期或永久性神经精神并发症),才使用以甲氟喹为基础的方案。[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html[87]US Food and Drug Administration. Mefloquine hydrochloride: drug safety communication - FDA approves label changes for antimalarial drug mefloquine hydrochloride due to risk of serious psychiatric and nerve side effects. Jul 2013 [internet publication].https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm362227.htm
复杂性恶性疟原虫感染:妊娠
应当在一开始就使用肠外治疗法积极治疗重症疟疾。 胃肠外青蒿琥酯是所有妊娠分期中重症疟疾的首选治疗方法。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 然后可以使用合适的后续口服方案。 如果胃肠外青蒿琥酯不可用,WHO 建议蒿甲醚肌肉注射优于奎宁。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1
非恶性疟原虫感染:妊娠
大多数非恶性疟原虫感染都是单纯性的。
建议在所有妊娠分期,对所有氯喹敏感的感染使用氯喹(或使用羟氯喹作为替代选择)。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html 不论是氯喹敏感还是氯喹耐药的感染,在妊娠早期后,ACT 是首选治疗方法。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 在妊娠早期,应当使用奎宁治疗氯喹耐药的间日疟原虫疟疾。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 氯喹耐药感染的其他治疗方案包括奎宁加克林霉素或甲氟喹。[73]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment of malaria: guidelines for clinicians (United States). Part 2: general approach to treatment and treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Apr 2019 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians2.html
间日疟原虫或者卵形疟原虫患者选用氯喹预防性用药,每周一次,直到分娩后。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1
复发性恶性疟原虫疟疾
恶性疟原虫疟疾的复发可能由治疗失败或再感染引起。治疗失败可能是由耐药性或治疗暴露不足(例如,药物呕吐、剂量不足、依从性不佳)。如果可能,应通过显微镜检查或基于乳酸脱氢酶的快速诊断试验确认治疗失败。治疗后 28 天内发热和寄生虫血症复发通常是由于治疗失败导致的,推荐在该地区采用已知有效的 ACT。28 天后复发可能是由于治疗失败或新发感染,推荐采用一线 ACT。然而,在第一次治疗后 60 天内再次使用甲氟喹与神经精神病学事件风险增加有关,应使用不含甲氟喹的治疗方案。[57]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria: third edition. 2015 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162441/1/9789241549127_eng.pdf?ua=1 在一项 III 期随机对照临床试验中,使用相同 ACT 方案的再治疗显示出与替代性 ACT 或奎宁加克林霉素类似的功效。[112]Mavoko HM, Nabasumba C, da Luz RI, et al. Efficacy and safety of re-treatment with the same artemisinin-based combination treatment (ACT) compared with an alternative ACT and quinine plus clindamycin after failure of first-line recommended ACT (QUINACT): a bicentre, open-label, phase 3, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2017 Jan;5(1):e60-8.http://thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(16)30236-4/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27840069?tool=bestpractice.com
应咨询专科医师以指导治疗这些患者。
青蒿素耐药性
临床青蒿素耐药性被定义为 ACT 治疗后延迟的寄生虫清除。虽然这种部分/相对耐药性不一定导致治疗失败(假设合用药物有效),但可能导致发生完全耐药性或寄生虫清除缓慢。耐药性与恶性疟原虫多药耐药性 1 基因 (P falciparum multidrug resistance 1, pfmdr1) 的过表达有关。[113]Gil JP, Krishna S. pfmdr1 (Plasmodium falciparum multidrug drug resistance gene 1): a pivotal factor in malaria resistance to artemisinin combination therapies. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2017 Jun;15(6):527-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28355493?tool=bestpractice.com 现已发现 PfKelch13 (K13) 是青蒿素耐药的一种分子标志物,关于该标志物地理分布的数据收集有助于改善青蒿素耐药的全球监测情况。尽管如此,ACT 仍被认为是治疗无并发症的恶性疟原虫疟疾最有效的方法。[114]World Health Organization. Status report on artemisinin and ACT resistance. Apr 2017 [internet publication].http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/artemisinin-resistance-april2017/en/
2017 年底,越南报告了一种恶性疟原虫耐药菌株。[115]Imwong M, Hien TT, Thuy-Nhien NT, et al. Spread of a single multidrug resistant malaria parasite lineage (PfPailin) to Vietnam. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017 Oct;17(10):1022-3.http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(17)30524-8/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28948924?tool=bestpractice.com 该菌株已被发现对双氢青蒿素加哌喹具有耐药性,并于 2008 年在柬埔寨首次确认。此后它已经蔓延到泰国东北部、老挝南部,现已蔓延到越南南部。该菌株对青蒿琥酯加甲氟喹高度敏感。
Antimalarial drug resistance in the Greater Mekong subregion: how concerned should we be?
WHO: malaria threats map