大量的证据支持药物疗法配合社会心理治疗是治疗阿片使用障碍的首选治疗方法。[53]National Institute on Drug Abuse. Principles of drug addiction treatment: a research based guide. 3rd ed. January 2018 [internet publication].http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/[54]World Health Organization. Guidelines for the psychosocially assisted pharmacological treatment of opioid dependence. Geneva: WHO Press; 2009.http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/Opioid_dependence_guidelines.pdf 对于这些患者,脱毒方法主要包括合理使用药物、社会心理支持、监管。对于长期治疗而言,药物维持治疗协同循证社会心理治疗对于提高患者依从性及杜绝患者继续使用非法阿片类物质有效。[55]Brecht ML, Hser YI, Anglin MD. A multimethod assessment of social intervention effects on narcotics use and property crime. Int J Addict. 1990-1991;25(11A):1317-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2132716?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Federal guidelines for opioid treatment programs. March 2015 [internet publication].https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Federal-Guidelines-for-Opioid-Treatment-Programs/PEP15-FEDGUIDEOTP 制定治疗计划时,评估患者的动机改变,家庭及社会支持的证据十分重要。
非专业人士在为有阿片类物质使用障碍的患者(特别是青少年、孕妇和老年人等特殊人群)开处方药之前,应先向在治疗成瘾方面有经验的执业医生咨询并寻求监督。 对于年龄较大的患者,评估是否存在认知功能障碍或痴呆非常重要,这些因素能影响患者的治疗、依从性及预后。 而目前使用的药物和草药补充剂应该被全面审查,避免潜在的相互作用。[57]Saber-Tehrani AS, Bruce RD, Altice FL. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions and adverse consequences between psychotropic medications and pharmacotherapy for the treatment of opioid dependence. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011 Jan;37(1):1-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21247284?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,对于药物剂量,需要根据患者的年龄、体重指数、肾功能、肝功能、营养状态(白蛋白水平)进行调整。药物的安全存放对防止药物意外,或有意服用过量至关重要,尤其当家中有儿童时。
阿片使用障碍的治疗应依据当地的指导方针,决定患者是否适合早期干预,门诊治疗、强化门诊治疗、部分住院治疗、社区治疗、住院治疗或强化住院治疗。[5]Kampman K, Jarvis M. American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) national practice guideline for the use of medications in the treatment of addiction involving opioid use. J Addict Med. 2015;9:358-367.http://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/practice-support/guidelines-and-consensus-docs/asam-national-practice-guideline-jam-article.pdf?sfvrsn=0http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26406300?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Mee-Lee D, Shulman GD, Fishman MJ, et al., (eds). The ASAM Criteria: treatment criteria for addictive, substance-related, and co-occurring conditions. 3rd ed. Carson City, NY: The Change Companies; 2013.
第一阶段:脱毒治疗
当患者对阿片存在生理依赖,脱毒或戒断是必要的。 但这并不是全部治疗,而是为推进戒毒的长期治疗的首个步骤。 可以在门诊或病房实施治疗,取决于中毒和戒断症状的严重程度,以及是否存在共病及安全性问题。
使用药物进行脱毒治疗。 目前临床试验已发展到半标准化方案。[59]Galanter M, Kleber HD, eds. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of substance abuse treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2008. 有两种循证解毒策略:阿片受体拮抗剂(即美沙酮、丁丙诺啡)替代或减量治疗;以及 α-2 肾上腺素受体激动剂(如可乐定或氯苯氧唑啉)联合或不联合纳曲酮。[60]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Drug misuse in over 16s: opioid detoxification. July 2007 [internet publication].http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG52[61]Gowing L, Farrell M, Ali R, et al. Alpha₂-adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(5):CD002024.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002024.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27140827?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do alpha2-adrenergic agonists compare with placebo or methadone for management of opioid withdrawal?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1609/full显示答案
美沙酮和丁丙诺啡都是一线用药。 临床医生必须根据个案情况衡量两种药物潜在的优势与风险。[62]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence. January 2007 [internet publication].http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA114 选择很大程度上取决于将挑选使用的维持治疗药物;最好选择同样的药物用于解毒及维持治疗。可乐定和氯苯氧唑啉被认为是二线用药。
丁丙诺啡
脱毒治疗的一线选择。[63]Meader N. A comparison of methadone, buprenorphine and alpha(2) adrenergic agonists for opioid detoxification: a mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010 Apr 1;108(1-2):110-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20074867?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Ponizovsky AM, Grinshpoon A, Margolis A, et al. Well-being, psychosocial factors, and side-effects among heroin-dependent inpatients after detoxification using buprenorphine versus clonidine. Addict Behav. 2006 Nov;31(11):2002-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16524668?tool=bestpractice.com 被认为是强效的μ受体部分激动剂及κ受体拮抗剂。[65]Zubieta J, Greenwald MK, Lombardi U, et al. Buprenorphine-induced changes in mu-opioid receptor availability in male heroin-dependent volunteers: a preliminary study. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000 Sep;23(3):326-34.http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v23/n3/full/1395518a.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10942856?tool=bestpractice.com
剂型为仅含丁丙诺啡的舌下含片,或含丁丙诺啡和纳洛酮的舌下含片。
联合阿片拮抗剂纳洛酮舌下含服。 这样可减少静脉滥用丁丙诺啡的可能性(患者注射舌下丁丙诺啡片剂)。对阿片成瘾者来说,丁丙诺啡联合纳曲酮肠道外给药能够引起戒断症状。
初始治疗选用丁丙诺啡与美沙酮区别在于给予阿片激动剂后立即加用丁丙诺啡会引起戒断症状。 故应在开始治疗前观察患者是否戒断症状(一般在末次海洛因使用后12小时出现)。
目前尚不清楚丁丙诺啡剂量的快速减少是否比缓慢减少更有效,以及这是否取决于戒断情况。[66]Gowing L, Ali R, White JM, et al. Buprenorphine for managing opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(2):CD002025.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002025.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28220474?tool=bestpractice.com
优点:与美沙酮相比作用时间长,戒断症状相对温和。[67]Johnson RE, Fudala PJ, Jaffe JH. Outpatient comparison of buprenorphine and methadone maintenance. I. Effects on opiate use and self-reported adverse effects and withdrawal symptomatology. NIDA Res Monogr. 1990;105:585-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1876130?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Fudala PJ, Johnson RE, Jaffe JH. Outpatient comparison of buprenorphine and methadone maintenance. II. Effects on cocaine usage, retention time in study and missed clinic visits. NIDA Res Monogr. 1990;105:587-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1876131?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Johnson RE, McCagh JC. Buprenorphine and naloxone for heroin dependence. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2000 Dec;2(6):519-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11123005?tool=bestpractice.com 丁丙诺啡的有效性可能与逐渐减量美沙酮的相似,但是目前尚不确定使用丁丙诺啡是否可以更快地缓解戒断症状。[66]Gowing L, Ali R, White JM, et al. Buprenorphine for managing opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(2):CD002025.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002025.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28220474?tool=bestpractice.com 从阿片脱毒时的完成率和戒断不适感方面来说,丁丙诺啡优于可乐定或洛非西定,与美沙酮相当。[66]Gowing L, Ali R, White JM, et al. Buprenorphine for managing opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(2):CD002025.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002025.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28220474?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How does buprenorphine compare with methadone or adrenergic agonists in people undergoing opioid withdrawal?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1652/full显示答案
美沙酮
另一个一线阿片脱毒药物。[63]Meader N. A comparison of methadone, buprenorphine and alpha(2) adrenergic agonists for opioid detoxification: a mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010 Apr 1;108(1-2):110-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20074867?tool=bestpractice.com 如果使用纯的、合成的、口服的μ阿片受体完全激动剂及NMDA受体拮抗剂得当,那么其对于脱毒治疗是安全、有效的。[70]Amato L, Davoli M, Minozzi S, et al. Methadone at tapered doses for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(2):CD003409.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003409.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450540?tool=bestpractice.com
解毒方法有两种:对使用短效阿片制剂的短期解毒治疗(<30 天);对接受美沙酮维持治疗患者的长期解毒治疗(>180 天)。
在使用美沙酮前最好等待戒断反应的症状或体征出现,因为不能通过不可靠的物质使用史判断其为躯体依赖或是药物过量。
诱导是治疗的最关键步骤,这一阶段的海洛因成瘾者死亡率比那些未治疗者高7倍。[71]Caplehorn JR, Drummer OH. Mortality associated with New South Wales methadone programs in 1994: lives lost and saved. Med J Aust. 1999 Feb 1;170(3):104-9.https://www.mja.com.au/journal/1999/170/3/mortality-associated-new-south-wales-methadone-programs-1994-lives-lost-and-savedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10065120?tool=bestpractice.com 诱导期一直持续到服用稳定剂量5-7天。
优点:与短效阿片相比释放更加平缓(由于其半衰期较长),且与海洛因相比戒断症状更加温和,但持续时间更长。
可乐定或氯苯氧唑啉
α-2 肾上腺素能受体激动剂能够减轻阿片戒断时交感神经系统的反应(即去甲肾上腺素能释放)。
在脱毒治疗前应给予通常剂量的阿片,阿片停用当天给予可乐定或氯苯氧唑啉。
研究已经发现将阿片受体拮抗剂纳曲酮与可乐定联用,能够缩短戒断持续时间,并且不增加不适感。[72]Kleber HD, Topazian M, Gaspari J, et al. Clonidine and naltrexone in the outpatient treatment of heroin withdrawal. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1987;13(1-2):1-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3687878?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Vining E, Kosten TR, Kleber HD. Clinical utility of rapid clonidine-naltrexone detoxification for opioid abusers. Br J Addict. 1988 May;83(5):567-75.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3382815?tool=bestpractice.com
优点:滥用风险更小,避免美沙酮可能带来的长期残留戒断症状。
缺点:包括药物副反应、放弃治疗率高以及更强的戒断不适感(与使用阿片受体激动剂相比)。[63]Meader N. A comparison of methadone, buprenorphine and alpha(2) adrenergic agonists for opioid detoxification: a mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010 Apr 1;108(1-2):110-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20074867?tool=bestpractice.com
支持疗法
没有依据支持任何营养成分或饮食能够帮助脱毒,但需要摄入足够的碳水化合物及食物。
缓解症状可能需要使用治疗剂量的辅助药物(例如,洛派丁胺治疗腹泻、昂丹司琼治疗呕吐、双环维林治疗肠痉挛、布洛芬治疗肌肉疼痛)。 在限制用药时间的前提下苯二氮卓类可用于治疗住院患者的肌肉痉挛,如果在门诊使用需谨慎。
在维持期应首先进行社会心理咨询。但在脱毒期,也应给予支持及安抚,辅助进行社会心理治疗可能使脱毒治疗更有效。[74]Amato L, Minozzi S, Davoli M, et al. Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments versus pharmacological treatments for opioid detoxification. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(9):CD005031.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005031.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21901695?tool=bestpractice.com [
]What are the effects of psychosocial treatments as an adjunct to pharmacological treatments in people undergoing opioid detoxification?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.565/full显示答案
阶段II:稳定与维持
这一阶段旨在促使患者远离毒品、预防复发、减少 HIV 和丙型肝炎患病风险、降低死亡率及减少犯罪。[75]Broome KM, Joe GW, Simpson DD. HIV risk reduction in outpatient drug abuse treatment: individual and geographic differences. AIDS Educ Prev. 1999 Aug;11(4):293-306.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10494354?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Longshore D, Hsieh S. Drug abuse treatment and risky sex: evidence for a cumulative treatment effect? Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1998 Aug;24(3):439-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9741945?tool=bestpractice.com 目标是预防或减轻阿片戒断症状及渴求,预防复发、恢复由于毒品使用导致的功能紊乱。在完全戒毒后持续治疗对于预防复发十分必要。
虽然这一阶段在不使用阿片受体激动剂的情况下也可以完成,但大量证据表明,药物辅助治疗对大部分阿片类物质使用障碍患者而言必不可少。[77]Nielsen S, Larance B, Degenhardt L, et al. Opioid agonist treatment for pharmaceutical opioid dependent people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(5):CD011117.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011117.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27157143?tool=bestpractice.com 预防复发的药物包括长效阿片受体激动剂(即美沙酮、丁丙诺啡)和阿片受体拮抗剂(即可注射的缓释型纳曲酮)。 只要患者能从治疗中获益、愿意接受治疗、存在复发风险,并且没有严重药物副作用,就应该持续治疗。
维持治疗计划的药物选择根据患者的偏好、既往治疗应答史以及医生对患者持续使用药物的短期和长期效果的评估而定。
与安慰剂相比,丁丙诺啡维持治疗 (BMT) 能够减少阿片滥用。 但是一篇Cochrane综述发现,对于持续治疗的患者,剂量在60-120mg/日的美沙酮维持治疗(MMT)比中等剂量(8-15mg/日)和高剂量(16mg/日)的BMT治疗更有效。[78]Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, et al. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(2):CD002207.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002207.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24500948?tool=bestpractice.com [
]What are the benefits and harms of buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance in people with opioid dependence?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.538/full显示答案 美沙酮和丁丙诺啡均与参与者的全因死亡率和用药过量相关死亡率显著降低有关(与未接受治疗者相比)。[79]Sordo L, Barrio G, Bravo MJ, et al. Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ. 2017 Apr 26;357:j1550.http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1550.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28446428?tool=bestpractice.com
横断面研究发现,接受 BMT 治疗患者的死亡率比接受 MMT 治疗患者的更低。在美国,自从 1999 年开始,药物中毒(包括阿片类镇痛药)死亡率增加了 3 倍。对于阿片类镇痛药相关的死亡中,美沙酮相关的死亡在 1999-2006 年间增加最为明显。[80]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). QuickStats from the National Center for Health Statistics. Age-adjusted death rates per 100,000 population for the three leading causes of injury death - United States, 1979-2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009 June 26:58(24);675.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5824a6.htm
丁丙诺啡
维持治疗的一线选择。[81]Bruneau J, Ahamad K, Goyer MÈ, et al. Management of opioid use disorders: a national clinical practice guideline. CMAJ. 2018 Mar 5;190(9):E247-57.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5837873/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29507156?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Fudala PJ, Bridge TP, Herbert S, et al. Office-based treatment of opiate addiction with a sublingual-tablet formulation of buprenorphine and naloxone. N Engl J Med. 2003 Sep 4;349(10):949-58.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa022164#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12954743?tool=bestpractice.com治疗成功:中等质量的证据表明,与安慰剂相比,8mg以上剂量的丁丙诺啡能减少非法阿片使用和提高保持性。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
使得其能够作为维持疗法适当候选药物的重要特性包括:与美沙酮和海洛因相比,躯体依赖减少,戒断症状严重程度较轻;与美沙酮相比,由于它的呼吸抑制作用存在天花板效应,而且全身生物利用度差,所以发生药物过量致死的可能性下降;由于其药效持续时间较长(24-60 小时),可每天仅给药 1 次,甚至一周 3 次。[83]Schottenfeld RS, Pakes J, O'Connor P, et al. Thrice-weekly versus daily buprenorphine maintenance. Biol Psychiatry. 2000 Jun 15;47(12):1072-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10862807?tool=bestpractice.com治疗成功:通过尿检分析,尚不明确丁丙诺啡每周3次服用是否比每日服用在减少阿片滥用时更有效。低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
可用的剂型为仅含丁丙诺啡的舌下含片,或者含丁丙诺啡和纳洛酮的舌下含片或颊膜剂。 它可联合阿片拮抗剂纳洛酮,经舌下给药。由于对阿片成瘾者,丁丙诺啡联合纳洛酮胃肠外给药能够促发戒断症状,因此可降低静脉滥用丁丙诺啡的可能性(患者将舌下丁丙诺啡片剂用以注射)。
对于正在使用丁丙诺啡且病情稳定的患者,通过一种可植入设备,可在 6 个月期间持续给予一致剂量的丁丙诺啡。对于已经服用稳定剂量丁丙诺啡至少 7 天的患者,也可每月一次注射给药;[84]Lofwall MR, Walsh SL, Nunes EV, et al. Weekly and monthly subcutaneous buprenorphine depot formulations vs daily sublingual buprenorphine with naloxone for treatment of opioid use disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2018 Jun 1;178(6):764-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29799968?tool=bestpractice.com 美国食品和药物管理局已经批准将其用于治疗以下患者的中度至重度阿片类物质使用障碍:已经开始使用经黏膜含丁丙诺啡制剂治疗的成人患者。
还能够用于:正使用美沙酮维持治疗戒毒,转为丁丙诺啡维持治疗,或未用药物的阶段的患者。[85]Breen CL, Harris SJ, Lintzeris N, et al. Cessation of methadone maintenance treatment using buprenorphine: transfer from methadone to buprenorphine and subsequent buprenorphine reductions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 Jul 20;71(1):49-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12821205?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Clark N, Lintzeris N, et al. Transferring from high doses of methadone to buprenorphine: a randomized trial of three different buprenorphine schedules. Presented at College on the Problems of Drug Dependence. Scottsdale, AZ; June 2006.
停止丁丙诺啡治疗后最初 4 周死亡风险高于治疗结束后的其余时间,这表明在此期间需要关注临床策略,以减轻这一风险。[79]Sordo L, Barrio G, Bravo MJ, et al. Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ. 2017 Apr 26;357:j1550.http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1550.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28446428?tool=bestpractice.com
美沙酮
维持治疗的替代一线选择,尤其是对于极高剂量阿片成瘾者。治疗成功和死亡率:中等质量证据表明,与非阿片替代疗法相比,美沙酮能减少海洛因使用,但不能降低死亡率。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 高口服生物利用度与长半衰期,使得美沙酮成为一种有效的维持治疗药物。[81]Bruneau J, Ahamad K, Goyer MÈ, et al. Management of opioid use disorders: a national clinical practice guideline. CMAJ. 2018 Mar 5;190(9):E247-57.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5837873/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29507156?tool=bestpractice.com治疗完成:中等质量证据表明,与安慰剂相比,使用美沙酮者有更多人完成治疗。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
经过诱导期并达到稳定剂量(基于抑制渴求和消除戒断症状),维持期治疗便开始了。 患者需每日到治疗机构咨询并领取美沙酮。 如患者表现良好,则可以在无监管条件下把适量的美沙酮带回家。 按此方案治疗1年后可以每两周复诊1次,治疗2年后每4周复诊1次。
与其余的治疗期间相比,美沙酮治疗最初 4 周的死亡(全因死亡)风险较高。该高死亡率会因长期接受阿片类药物替代治疗而降低,会因退出治疗而增加,这表明有必要在最初的“黄金”治疗月份促进患者接受治疗。[79]Sordo L, Barrio G, Bravo MJ, et al. Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ. 2017 Apr 26;357:j1550.http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1550.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28446428?tool=bestpractice.com
美沙酮能够产生强烈的躯体依赖。 终止美沙酮维持治疗可能导致持续超过4周的戒断症状。 仅10%-20%的患者停止美沙酮治疗后能保持戒毒状态。[59]Galanter M, Kleber HD, eds. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of substance abuse treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2008.
停止美沙酮治疗后最初 4 周死亡风险高于治疗结束后的其余时间,这表明在此期间需要关注临床策略,以减轻这一风险。[79]Sordo L, Barrio G, Bravo MJ, et al. Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ. 2017 Apr 26;357:j1550.http://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1550.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28446428?tool=bestpractice.com
口服纳曲酮
一种无成瘾性、无欣快作用的纯粹的μ阿片受体拮抗剂。 患者并不十分喜欢纳曲酮,因为它缺乏阿片受体兴奋剂的作用。 这会降低依从性及服从率,限制其在临床上的使用。 不过,制定纳曲酮长期治疗计划或许可以提高患者的依从性及临床效果。
研究已发现其对于治疗积极性较高的特定人群(如护士、医生和即将刑满释放的犯人)有效。[87]Washton AM, Pottash AC, Gold MS. Naltrexone in addicted business executives and physicians. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984 Sep;45(9 Pt 2):39-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6088468?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Washton AM, Gold MS, Pottash AC. Successful use of naltrexone in addicted physicians and business executives. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse. 1984 Winter;4(2):89-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6524509?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Roth A, Hogan I, Farren C. Naltrexone plus group therapy for the treatment of opiate-abusing health-care professionals. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1997 Jan-Feb;14(1):19-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9218232?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Brahen LS, Henderson RK, Capone T, et al. Naltrexone treatment in a jail work-release program. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984 Sep;45(9 pt 2):49-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6469937?tool=bestpractice.com
一份系统的Cochrane综述发现纳曲酮与安慰剂或没有接受治疗相比,在维持期、阿片滥用及副作用方面没有优势。[91]Minozzi S, Amato L, Vecchi S, et al. Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(4):CD001333.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001333.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21491383?tool=bestpractice.com
纳曲酮维持治疗开始之前应进行纳曲酮激发试验。
肠道外纳曲酮
目前纳曲酮有一种缓释注射剂型,由于机体依赖风险较低,被认为是一种有帮助的治疗选择。在一项试验中,在自愿寻求治疗的已解毒阿片类药物依赖患者中,与接受安慰剂治疗相比,接受该制剂治疗后停用阿片的时间更长,而且一般耐受性良好。[92]Krupitsky E, Nunes EV, Ling W, et al. Injectable extended-release naltrexone for opioid dependence: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre randomised trial. Lancet. 2011 Apr 30;377(9776):1506-13.http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2811%2960358-9/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21529928?tool=bestpractice.com 缓释型可注射纳曲酮的试验显示,就维持戒断状态、实现药物治疗依从性、维持效果、防止阿片类物质躯体依赖复发以及减少某些个体对阿片类物质的渴望而言,临床效果一致,同时显示了良好的安全性和耐受性。[93]Syed YY, Keating GM. Extended-release intramuscular naltrexone (VIVITROL®): a review of its use in the prevention of relapse to opioid dependence in detoxified patients. CNS Drugs. 2013 Oct;27(10):851-61.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24018540?tool=bestpractice.com[94]Lee JD, Friedmann PD, Kinlock TW, et al. Extended-release naltrexone to prevent opioid relapse in criminal justice offenders. N Engl J Med. 2016 Mar 31;374(13):1232-42.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1505409#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27028913?tool=bestpractice.com
这一治疗方案能够在阿片使用障碍者中安全使用,包括有基础轻至中度慢性丙肝和/或 HIV 感染的患者,[95]Mitchell MC, Memisoglu A, Silverman BL. Hepatic safety of injectable extended-release naltrexone in patients with chronic hepatitis C and HIV infection. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2012 Nov;73(6):991-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23036218?tool=bestpractice.com 每月给药 1 次。
研究表明,在开始时,纳曲酮治疗与口服丁丙诺啡加纳洛酮一样安全有效。[96]Tanum L, Solli KK, Latif ZE, et al. Effectiveness of injectable extended-release naltrexone vs daily buprenorphine-naloxone for opioid dependence: a randomized clinical noninferiority trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Dec 1;74(12):1197-205.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/article-abstract/2657484http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29049469?tool=bestpractice.com[97]Lee JD, Nunes EV Jr, Novo P, et al. Comparative effectiveness of extended-release naltrexone versus buprenorphine-naloxone for opioid relapse prevention (X:BOT): a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2018 Jan 27;391(10118):309-18.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5806119/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29150198?tool=bestpractice.com
支持疗法
维持治疗应包括社会心理干预和尿液药物筛查监测,以及评估和治疗共患躯体及精神疾病(如抑郁症、焦虑障碍和人格障碍)。[98]Woody GE, McLellan AT, Luborsky L, et al. Psychotherapy in community methadone programs: a validation study. Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Sep;152(9):1302-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7653685?tool=bestpractice.com
应将监测患者的躯体健康问题(如心血管、呼吸及胃肠道疾病),HIV测试及咨询,丙肝筛查以及转诊统一到维持治疗项目中。
患者能够从社会心理治疗中获益,如个体及群体物质使用咨询,意外事件管理,认知治疗,支持性表达治疗及12步治疗小组,如匿名戒毒会。Narcotics AnonymousUK Narcotics Anonymous
青少年
一般来说,年轻人需要成年人提供更严密的监测和定期监督。 青少年的知情同意和保密与成人的不同。 家庭和/或家长参与对青少年的评估和治疗是至关重要的。 在开始药物治疗之前,为青少年建立一个安全的环境进行康复十分重要。 经验丰富的专家应该指导初始治疗,并在后期治疗中监督非专业人员。
如关于未获得父母知情同意的青少年接受物质使用障碍治疗的条例发生改变,那么当地的指南也应随之变化。
对于阿片成瘾的青少年,丁丙诺啡与行为干预联合治疗比可乐定与行为干预联合治疗更有效。[99]Marsch LA, Bickel WK, Badger GJ, et al. Comparison of pharmacological treatments for opioid-dependent adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Oct;62(10):1157-64.http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/62/10/1157http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16203961?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,对于阿片成瘾的年轻患者而言,今后需要研究评估丁丙诺啡长期治疗的有效性及安全性。[100]Woody GE, Poole SA, Subramaniam G, et al. Extended vs. short-term buprenorphine-naloxone for treatment of opioid-addicted youth: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008 Nov 5;300(17):2003-11.http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/300/17/2003.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18984887?tool=bestpractice.com[101]Feillin DA. Treatment of adolescent opioid dependence: no quick fix. JAMA. 2008 Nov 5;300(17):2057-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18984896?tool=bestpractice.com
在青少年诱导和维持时首选丁丙诺啡而非美沙酮,因为丁丙诺啡较为安全,除非之前对丁丙诺啡反应不良。 对于确诊阿片使用障碍的青少年患者,应像成年人一样接受丁丙诺啡的诱导、稳定及维持治疗。
对于 18 周岁以下人群,美沙酮治疗通常不能作为一线治疗选择。在美国,美沙酮治疗对于 18 周岁以下患者,仅当其具有2次以上戒毒记录或短期康复后,再次重复使用阿片时,方可得以应用。[102]Hopfer CJ, Khuri E, Crowley TJ, et al. Adolescent heroin use: a review of the descriptive and treatment literature. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002 Oct;23(3):231-37.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12392810?tool=bestpractice.com[103]Marsch LA. Treatment of adolescents. In: Strain EC, Stitzer ML, eds. The treatment of opioid dependence. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2005:497-507.
同时还应考虑常规的支持治疗。
妊娠及哺乳
阿片类物质使用障碍的孕妇,其产科及新生儿并发症发生率增高。[104]Dattel BJ. Substance abuse in pregnancy. Semin Perinatol. 1990 Apr;14(2):179-87.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2187251?tool=bestpractice.com 同时还应考虑常规的支持治疗。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com[105]World Health Organization. Guidelines for identification and management of substance use and substance use disorders in pregnancy. 2014 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/107130/1/9789241548731_eng.pdf?ua=1 但若确实需要,应住院进行脱毒。
美沙酮和丁丙诺啡是解毒或维持治疗的首选药物。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com 它不会引起胎儿畸形,但能导致胎儿戒断综合征。[106]Brown HL, Britton KA, Mahaffey D, et al. Methadone maintenance in pregnancy: a reappraisal. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Aug;179(2):459-63.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9731853?tool=bestpractice.com 美国儿科学会认为服用美沙酮的母亲可以进行母乳喂养。在妊娠前接受稳定美沙酮剂量治疗的女性可能需要调整剂量,特别是在妊娠晚期,但并非所有孕妇都需调整剂量,应根据个体临床情况确定。在妊娠期间,特别是在妊娠晚期,可能会产生快速的新陈代谢,在这种情况下,分次(而不是每日)剂量可能是控制戒断症状的最佳方式(并且可能与降低新生儿戒断综合征的风险有关)。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com
丁丙诺啡是美沙酮的一线替代药物。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com 与美沙酮相比,丁丙诺啡出现胎儿戒断综合征的可能性更小,但仍有出现的风险。[107]Lejeune C, Simmat-Durand L, Gourarier L, et al. Prospective multicenter observational study of 260 infants borne to 259 opiate-dependent mothers on methadone or high-dose buprenophine substitution. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006 May 20;82(3):250-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16257138?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Schindler SD, Eder H, Ortner R, et al. Neonatal outcome following buprenorphine maintenance during conception and throughout pregnancy. Addiction. 2003 Jan;98(1):103-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12492761?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Hytinantti T, Kahila H, Renlund M, et al. Neonatal outcome of 58 infants exposed to maternal buprenorphine in utero. Acta Pediatr. 2008 Aug;97(8):1040-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18474065?tool=bestpractice.com 与美沙酮相比,丁丙诺啡更容易延长妊娠期并导致出生体重的增加。[110]Kakko J, Heilig M, Sarman I. Buprenorphine and methadone treatment of opiate dependence during pregnancy: comparison of fetal growth and neonatal outcomes in two consecutive case series. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008 Jul 1;96(1-2):69-78.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18355989?tool=bestpractice.com 值得关注的是,在研究中接受丁丙诺啡治疗的受试者需要每日进行给药,较之于标准的社区治疗,能够得到更多的社会心理干预。[110]Kakko J, Heilig M, Sarman I. Buprenorphine and methadone treatment of opiate dependence during pregnancy: comparison of fetal growth and neonatal outcomes in two consecutive case series. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008 Jul 1;96(1-2):69-78.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18355989?tool=bestpractice.com 多项小型病例系列检测了母乳中的丁丙诺啡浓度。 结果一致表明,母乳中的丁丙诺啡量很小,不可能对正在发育的婴儿造成短期的负面影响。[111]Reece-Stremtan S, Marinelli KA. ABM clinical protocol #21: guidelines for breastfeeding and substance use or substance use disorder, revised 2015. Breastfeed Med. 2015 Apr;10(3):135-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25836677?tool=bestpractice.com
接受美沙酮治疗的孕妇不应过渡到使用丁丙诺啡,因为有促发戒断的显著风险。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com
常规的支持治疗应被考虑,但苯二氮卓类物质一般应避免用于孕妇。
美国妇产科学院 (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG) 建议,一般来说,对于正在接受阿片类激动剂治疗且病情稳定的女性,如果已停止使用违禁药物并且无其他禁忌证(如 HIV 感染),应鼓励母乳喂养。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com 患有阿片类物质使用障碍的女性可能需要额外的产前保健,例如扩大的性传播感染 (STI) 检测范围,以及增加额外的超声检查来评估胎儿体重。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com 妊娠期间使用阿片类药物(包括丁丙诺啡)的母亲所生的婴儿应在出生后由儿科医生监测新生儿戒断综合征,新生儿可能在出生后不久就会出现这种情况。[48]American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No 711. Obstet Gynecol 2017 Aug;130(2):e81-94.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2017/08000/Committee_Opinion_No__711___Opioid_Use_and_Opioid.57.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28742676?tool=bestpractice.com