在过去,RCC 主要采用手术治疗(其他治疗选项很少,因为恶性肿瘤相对抗化疗和放疗)。手术仍然是局限性病变的基础治疗,而且对 1 期肿瘤的治愈率非常高 (>90%)。[2]Jewett MA, Zuniga A. Renal tumor natural history: the rationale and role for active surveillance. Urol Clin North Am. 2008;35:627-634.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18992616?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Lattouf JB, Trinh QD, Saad F. The contemporary role of surgery in kidney cancer. Curr Oncol. 2009;16(suppl 1):S8-S15.http://www.current-oncology.com/index.php/oncology/article/view/410/336;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19478900?tool=bestpractice.com随着外科技术的改善,整体患者首次外科切除术后的效果也随之提高。完整切除局限性晚期肿瘤仍具挑战性,它可升高局部或全身复发的危险。
虽然一些晚期 RCC进展缓慢且自然史可变,但是在过去治疗转移性 RCC 的方法非常有限,预后通常很差。免疫治疗(例如α干扰素 和白介素-2)对疾病有一定的控制能力,但是治疗产生的毒性却很显著。[72]Plimack ER, Tannir N, Lin E, et al. Patterns of disease progression in metastatic renal cell carcinoma patients treated with antivascular agents and interferon: impact of therapy on recurrence patterns and outcome measures. Cancer. 2009;115:1859-1866.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19241453?tool=bestpractice.com
主要影响血管内皮生长因子 (VEGF) 通路的靶向系统性治疗自 2005 年出现后彻底改变了转移性 RCC 的治疗,而且这一前景持续改善,因为这些药物在新辅助和辅助治疗情况下得到快速发展。在过去被证实可改善晚期 RCC预后的减瘤性肾切除(在转移性疾病的情况下手术切除原发性肿瘤)的作用在分子治疗的时代有待探讨。最后,更加广泛地使用敏感性高的影像方法增强了对肾脏小肿块 (SRM) (定义为肾脏病变不到 4 cm)的检出,这提高了更早开始手术治疗的可能性。
肾脏小肿块/早期 RCC(1、2 期)
有证据表明 SRM(尤其是小于 2 cm 的)更可能是良性的(小于 1 cm 的可能性为 46%,小于 2 cm 的为 25%)。[1]Mattar K, Jewett MA. Watchful waiting for small renal masses. Curr Urol Rep. 2008;9:22-25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18366970?tool=bestpractice.com一篇综述的总结如下,跟踪监测的生长缓慢的SRM(一年不到 0.2 到 0.3 cm),良性的可能性更大,或如果为恶性,不太可能转移;如确诊为 RCC这些生长较慢的病变在组织学上更可能是乳头状细胞亦或是嫌色细胞均尚不明确。[1]Mattar K, Jewett MA. Watchful waiting for small renal masses. Curr Urol Rep. 2008;9:22-25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18366970?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Jewett MA, Zuniga A. Renal tumor natural history: the rationale and role for active surveillance. Urol Clin North Am. 2008;35:627-634.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18992616?tool=bestpractice.com但是,生长速率不可作为预测良恶性的绝对指标,因为 RCC 也可表现为生长缓慢或不生长。[73]Crispen PL, Viterbo R, Boorjian SA, et al. Natural history, growth kinetics, and outcomes of untreated clinically localized renal tumors under active surveillance. Cancer. 2009;115:2844-2852.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19402168?tool=bestpractice.com整体而言,小于 3.5 cm 的肿块,即使可能是 RCC,在 2 到 3 年内出现转移的可能性低。因此,有人提出跟踪监测有显著合并症、预期寿命不长和/或手术高危的老年患者的 SRM(尤其是小于 3 cm 的肿块)可能是最佳选择。[1]Mattar K, Jewett MA. Watchful waiting for small renal masses. Curr Urol Rep. 2008;9:22-25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18366970?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Jewett MA, Zuniga A. Renal tumor natural history: the rationale and role for active surveillance. Urol Clin North Am. 2008;35:627-634.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18992616?tool=bestpractice.com跟踪监测SRM并不是当前的国际标准,不推荐用于较为年青、身体健康且肿块可手术切除的患者。[2]Jewett MA, Zuniga A. Renal tumor natural history: the rationale and role for active surveillance. Urol Clin North Am. 2008;35:627-634.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18992616?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Klaver S, Joniau S, Van Poppel H. Surveillance as an option for the treatment of small renal masses. Adv Urol. 2008;705958.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=18769558http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18769558?tool=bestpractice.com
开放式根治性肾切除术有史以来就是具备手术条件的患者的治疗选择(术前可能需要活检,以确定是否存在恶性肿瘤,尤其是具备手术条件的高危险患者)。腹腔镜肾切除与开放性手术效果相当(甚至在治疗较大的肿瘤方面),所以如果技术可行,这是优先选择的方式。经腹膜和腹膜后入路的腹腔镜方法都已被评估。[74]Fan X, Xu K, Lin T, et al. Comparison of transperitoneal and retroperitoneal laparoscopic nephrectomy for renal cell carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJU Int. 2013;111:611-621.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23106964?tool=bestpractice.com使用机器人辅助的腹腔镜技术在早期研究中很有前景,但是需要不断地研究评估。[75]Masson-Lecomte A, Bensalah K, Seringe E, et al. A prospective comparison of surgical and pathological outcomes obtained after robot-assisted or pure laparoscopic partial nephrectomy in moderate to complex renal tumours: results from a French multicentre collaborative study. BJU Int. 2013;111:256-263.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23279002?tool=bestpractice.com通常需同时进行同侧肾上腺切除术;有证据表明,只在肿瘤小于 4 cm 且术前影像学检查清晰显示肾上腺未受累及,方可以不行同侧肾上腺切除术。[71]Lattouf JB, Trinh QD, Saad F. The contemporary role of surgery in kidney cancer. Curr Oncol. 2009;16(suppl 1):S8-S15.http://www.current-oncology.com/index.php/oncology/article/view/410/336;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19478900?tool=bestpractice.com影像学检查清晰显示无转移的肾下极肿瘤通常也可以不行肾上腺切除术。淋巴切除术不是标准的治疗规范,因为没有证据显示它可提高生存率。
肾部分切除/保留肾单位手术 (NSS)过去仅针对单侧肾,或者考虑对侧肾功能不全时进行;但为了长期保留更多的肾功能,现在一般提倡(应用开放术式)应用NSS治疗小于 4 cm的肿瘤/SRMs。我们将继续收集比较肾脏全切术与 NSS的肿瘤预后数据;[76]Van Poppel H, Da Pozzo L, Albrecht W, et al. A prospective randomized EORTC intergroup phase 3 study comparing the complications of elective nephron-sparing surgery and radical nephrectomy for low-stage renal cell carcinoma. Eur Urol. 2007;51:1606-1615.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17140723?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Bensalah K, Pantuck AJ, Rioux-Leclercq N, et al. Positive surgical margin appears to have negligible impact on survival of renal cell carcinomas treated by nephron-sparing surgery. Eur Urol. 2010;57:466-471.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19359089?tool=bestpractice.com但是,越来越多的证据表明根治性肾切除术(与 NSS 相比)同随后的慢性肾功能不全风险升高有关,这种情况可能导致非癌性的健康问题。[78]Thompson RH, Boorjian SA, Lohse CM, et al. Radical nephrectomy for pT1a renal masses may be associated with decreased overall survival compared with partial nephrectomy. J Urol. 2008;179:468-471.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18076931?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Kim SP, Thompson RH, Boorjian SA, et al. Comparative effectiveness for survival and renal function of partial and radical nephrectomy for localized renal tumors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Urol. 2012;188:51-57.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22591957?tool=bestpractice.com[80]MacLennan S, Imamura M, Lapitan MC, et al. Systematic review of oncological outcomes following surgical management of localised renal cancer. Eur Urol. 2012;61:972-993.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22405593?tool=bestpractice.com对于经合理挑选的患者,他们在NSS和根治性肾切除术后有相似的生存期。[81]Van Poppel H, Da Pozzo L, Albrecht W, et al. A prospective, randomised EORTC intergroup phase 3 study comparing the oncologic outcome of elective nephron-sparing surgery and radical nephrectomy for low-stage renal cell carcinoma. Eur Urol. 2011;59:543-552.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21186077?tool=bestpractice.com只要技术可行,应尽量进行 NSS,一些机构提倡将这一方法而不是根治性肾切除术作为早期 RCC 的治疗标准。[82]Ljungberg B. Nephron-sparing surgery strategy: the current standard for the treatment of localised renal cell carcinoma. Eur Urol Supplements. 2011;10:e49-e51.对于多灶性或双侧肿瘤患者(尤其是那些具有遗传性综合征和RCC风险逐渐增加的患者),NSS可能尤为重要,它可以更长久地保留患者的肾功能。一些早期证据表明应用分子药物(酪氨酸激酶抑制剂)的新辅助疗法或许有助于缩小肿瘤大小,使应用NSS 或消融术来处理肿瘤成为可能;但是这仍然有待验证。 [83]Kroon BK, de Bruijn R, Prevoo W, et al. Probability of downsizing primary tumors of renal cell carcinoma by targeted therapies is related to size at presentation. Urology. 2013;81:111-115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23153934?tool=bestpractice.com肾切除术后的患者可选择参加研究辅助疗法的临床试验。
虽然手术治疗仍然是这类患者的标准疗法,但还有一种可以治疗小型肿瘤的方法为局部消融术。[84]Patard JJ. Incidental renal tumours. Curr Opin Urol. 2009;19:454-458.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19571758?tool=bestpractice.com[85]Boorjian SA, Uzzo RG. The evolving management of small renal masses. Curr Oncol Rep. 2009;11:211-217.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19336013?tool=bestpractice.com最常使用的消融技术为射频消融 (RFA)和冷冻消融。RFA 通过高频电流的凝固作用使肿瘤细胞死亡。冷冻消融则通过局部冷冻导致细胞死亡。证据显示 针对SRM 的局部消融术的术后预后良好,其中冷冻消融的局部控制作用更佳,肿瘤转移的风险更小,同时重复治疗的需求更少。[86]Kunkle DA, Uzzo RG. Cryoablation or radiofrequency ablation of the small renal mass: a meta-analysis. Cancer. 2008;113:2671-2680.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18816624?tool=bestpractice.com局部消融术可用于需要保留肾功能的患者(例如有多处病变危险的 von Hippel Lindau 综合征患者或者单侧肾患者)或医生认为因合并症而不适合手术治疗的患者。
局部晚期 RCC(3 期)
针对局部晚期 RCC 且符合手术条件的患者,标准的治疗方法为根治性肾切除术,如果主要的突出特征是淋巴结病(通常是反应性的),那么应该进行根治性肾切除术以图治愈。对于侵犯下腔静脉的肿瘤,可能存在一定的技术难度,但应用先进的外科技术仍然有根治性切除的可能性,[68]Zisman A, Pantuck AJ, Dorey F, et al. Improved prognostication of renal cell carcinoma using an integrated staging system. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:1649-1657.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11250993?tool=bestpractice.com而且与直接侵犯下腔静脉壁的患者相比,活动性癌栓患者的预后更佳。[87]Hatcher PA, Anderson EE, Paulson DF, et al. Surgical management and prognosis of renal cell carcinoma invading the vena cava. J Urol. 1991;145:20-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1984092?tool=bestpractice.com下腔静脉存在癌栓的 RCC需要具有该领域专业知识的多学科团队来治疗。[88]Lawindy SM, Kurian T, Kim T, et al. Important surgical considerations in the management of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) with inferior vena cava (IVC) tumour thrombus. BJU Int. 2012;110:926-939.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22540179?tool=bestpractice.com
20 世纪 50 年代以来,表明肾切除后使用辅助免疫治疗可提高这些患者2 年生存率的证据有限。[68]Zisman A, Pantuck AJ, Dorey F, et al. Improved prognostication of renal cell carcinoma using an integrated staging system. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:1649-1657.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11250993?tool=bestpractice.com然而,近期的荟萃分析表明手术治疗后进行辅助化疗、疫苗、免疫治疗或生物化疗似乎对局部晚期 RCC没有益处。[89]Scherr AJ, Lima JP, Sasse EC, et al. Adjuvant therapy for locally advanced renal cell cancer: a systematic review with meta-analysis. BMC Cancer. 2011;11:115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3080342/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21453469?tool=bestpractice.com已有试验正在研究新的辅助靶向治疗(例如舒尼替尼、索拉非尼或贝伐单抗);其中一些药物表现出早期治疗前景。[90]Wood CG, Margulis V. Neoadjuvant (presurgical) therapy for renal cell carcinoma: a new treatment paradigm for locally advanced and metastatic disease. Cancer. 2009;115(suppl 10):2355-2360.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19402066?tool=bestpractice.com[91]Bex A, van der Veldt AA, Blank C, et al. Neoadjuvant sunitinib for surgically complex advanced renal cell cancer of doubtful resectability: initial experience with downsizing to reconsider cytoreductive surgery. World J Urol. 2009;27:533-539.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19145434?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Thomas AA, Rini BI, Lane BR, et al. Response of the primary tumor to neoadjuvant sunitinib in patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma. J Urol. 2009;181:518-523.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19100579?tool=bestpractice.com目前,对于局部晚期 RCC 患者,尤其是难以实施肾切除或肾切除不成功的患者,应考虑参加新辅助治疗的临床试验。一些治疗方案所评估的分子药物(酪氨酸激酶抑制剂)缩小肿瘤的效果似乎与肿瘤的初始大小相关(对较小的病变更有效);[83]Kroon BK, de Bruijn R, Prevoo W, et al. Probability of downsizing primary tumors of renal cell carcinoma by targeted therapies is related to size at presentation. Urology. 2013;81:111-115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23153934?tool=bestpractice.com但是,新辅助疗法目前仍处于临床研究阶段,最常建议用于真正的局部晚期并且不可切除的肿瘤。[93]Schrader AJ, Steffens S, Schnoeller TJ, et al. Neoadjuvant therapy of renal cell carcinoma: a novel treatment option in the era of targeted therapy? Int J Urol. 2012;19:903-907.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22640774?tool=bestpractice.com
转移性疾病(4 期)
对于具备手术条件的患者,目前尚无关于转移性病变切除的正式指南。但是,通常只有体能状况良好的患者才符合手术指征,尤其是仅存在几处独立远端转移病变的患者,减瘤性肾切除术仍然是原发性肿瘤的一种治疗选择。转移灶切除术可与肾脏手术同时进行,或单独进行。转移性病变的切除还可以在原治愈性肾切除术复发后进行,尤其可以在复发病变造成的负担较小且患者身体状况尚可时进行。
切除转移性病变最常见的目的是为了根治,对肺部转移病变最为适合。就诊时转移灶造成的负担较小或者在 至少1 年以前进行过原治愈性手术后复发的健康患者应考虑接受转移灶切除术,尤其是当他们出现肺部转移时。但是,转移灶切除术的作用和最佳时机目前仍有争议,且需要进一步的研究。转移灶切除术的作用:有较充分的证据表明在不久的将来,转移灶切除术的适应征需要重新评估。[94]Kopke T, Bierer S, Wulfing C, et al. Multimodality treatment paradigms for renal cell carcinoma: surgery versus targeted agents. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2009;9:763-771.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19496713?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
在罕见的情况下,转移性 RCC 会自然消退;有证据表明原发性肿瘤的减瘤性肾切除术可促进转移灶自行消退。[95]Flanigan RC, Salmon SE, Blumenstein BA, et al. Nephrectomy followed by interferon alfa-2b compared with interferon alfa-2b alone for metastatic renal-cell cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1655-1659.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa003013#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11759643?tool=bestpractice.com[96]Mickisch GH, Garin A, van Poppel H, et al. Radical nephrectomy plus interferon-alfa-based immunotherapy compared with interferon alfa alone in metastatic renal-cell carcinoma: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2001;358:966-970.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11583750?tool=bestpractice.com总体而言,自 2000 年这些数据(证明接受过减瘤性肾切除的转移性 RCC 患者的中位生存期有所改善)公开之后,原发性肿瘤的减瘤性肾切除术逐渐成为人们广泛接受的一种治疗方法。手术并发症(器官功能障碍/全身功能状态较差)让一些患者感觉不适而无法接受术后免疫治疗,这是该方法弊端之一。尽管如此,对于经过慎重选择的患者(具有透明细胞组织学且功能状态良好),仍应考虑进行减瘤性肾切除术;长期(9 年)随访显示,与仅接受干扰素治疗的患者相比,接受减瘤性肾切除术的患者的预后具有持续地改善。[97]Lara PN Jr, Tangen CM, Conlon SJ, et al; Southwest Oncology Group Trial S8949. Predictors of survival of advanced renal cell carcinoma: long-term results from Southwest Oncology Group Trial S8949. J Urol. 2009;181:512-516.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19100570?tool=bestpractice.com进一步的证据表明,非中枢神经系统病变或骨病变的患者也可能受益,肿瘤减积的可能性超过 75%。[98]Fallick ML, McDermott DF, LaRock D, et al. Nephrectomy before interleukin-2 therapy for patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. J Urol. 1997;158:1691-1695.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9334580?tool=bestpractice.com需再次指出,手术的作用和时机在靶向治疗时代仍然有待验证,一些试验正在对这一方面进行研究。回顾性证据表明,与单一使用靶向治疗相比,于减瘤术后再使用抗血管内皮生长因子疗法治疗的患者的中位生存期有所改善(20 个月对比 9 个月)。[99]Choueiri TK, Xie W, Kollmannsberger CK, et al. The impact of cytoreductive nephrectomy in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) treated with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-targeted therapy. Abstract 311. ASCO Genitourinary Cancers Symposium 2010.
以细胞因子为基础的免疫治疗[α干扰素、阿地白介素/白介素-2(IL-2)]
过去人们发现的对转移性 RCC 唯一有些疗效的系统性治疗。机能状态良好[ECOG(东部肿瘤协作组)评分 0-1]且具有透明细胞组织学的患者可以考虑,同时有人提出肉瘤样病变也可能从治疗中获益。[100]Cangiano T, Liao J, Naitoh J, et al. Sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma: biologic behavior, prognosis, and response to combined surgical resection and immunotherapy. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:523-528.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10080595?tool=bestpractice.com在当前的靶向治疗时代,对分子药物有禁忌,分子药物对患者有显著毒性或靶向治疗时出现进展后的患者仍然可以尝试免疫治疗。[101]de Reijke TM, Bellmunt J, van Poppel H, et al. EORTC-GU group expert opinion on metastatic renal cell cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45:765-773.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19157861?tool=bestpractice.com
反应时间一般少于 12 个月。
大剂量 IL-2:7% 到 8% 的患者在大剂量的 IL-2 治疗后可获得完全缓解。[102]Belldegrun AS, Klatte T, Shuch B, et al. Cancer-specific survival outcomes among patients treated during the cytokine era of kidney cancer (1989-2005): a benchmark for emerging targeted cancer therapies. Cancer. 2008;113:2457-2463.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/121426973/HTMLSTARThttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18823034?tool=bestpractice.com[103]Klapper JA, Downey SG, Smith FO, et al. High-dose interleukin-2 for the treatment of metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a retrospective analysis of response and survival in patients treated in the surgery branch at the National Cancer Institute between 1986 and 2006. Cancer. 2008;113:293-301.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119052535/HTMLSTARThttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18457330?tool=bestpractice.com其中一些患者的生存期延长(最长达 10 年)。[102]Belldegrun AS, Klatte T, Shuch B, et al. Cancer-specific survival outcomes among patients treated during the cytokine era of kidney cancer (1989-2005): a benchmark for emerging targeted cancer therapies. Cancer. 2008;113:2457-2463.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/121426973/HTMLSTARThttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18823034?tool=bestpractice.com但是一般总体缓解率变化不大(最高达到 15%),大多数治疗患者死亡率的改善也较小。[104]Medical Research Council Renal Cancer Collaborators. Interferon-alpha and survival in metastatic renal carcinoma: early results of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999;353:14-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10023944?tool=bestpractice.com大剂量的 IL-2 具有相当大的毒性,应在拥有经验丰富的医疗团队的医疗中心住院治疗,以期提高治疗指数和改善患者预后。[105]Fyfe G, Fisher RI, Rosenberg SA, et al. Results of treatment of 255 patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma who received high-dose recombinant interleukin-2 therapy. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:688-696.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7884429?tool=bestpractice.com大剂量的 IL-2 逐渐显现出一些新的问题,即一些分子治疗后忌用高剂量 IL-2。白介素-2 (IL-2) 的禁忌症:有高质量的证据表明在血管内皮生长因子 (VEGF) 抑制剂治疗后使用 IL-2 不安全。[106]Cho DC, Puzanov I, Regan MM, et al. Retrospective analysis of the safety and efficacy of interleukin-2 after prior VEGF-targeted therapy in patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma. J Immunother. 2009;32:181-185.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19238017?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
α干扰素 毒性较小,但治疗效果也比大剂量的 IL-2要差。α干扰素的试验结果表明该药对生存率无益;[107]Negrier S, Perol D, Ravaud A, et al. Medroxyprogesterone, interferon alfa-2a, interleukin 2, or combination of both cytokines in patients with metastatic renal carcinoma of intermediate prognosis: results of a randomized controlled trial. Cancer. 2007;110:2448-2457.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/116330049/HTMLSTARThttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17932908?tool=bestpractice.com但是,相对较低的毒性使其可以与其他治疗(一般是减瘤性肾切除术)联合使用。
包括血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)抑制剂和哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶向(m-TOR)抑制剂在内的靶向分子治疗一般用于具有良好机能状态(ECOG 评分 0-2)和透明细胞组织学的患者。[50]Motzer RJ, Agarwal N, Beard C; National and Comprehensive Cancer Network. Kidney cancer. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2011;9:960-977.http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asphttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21917622?tool=bestpractice.com[101]de Reijke TM, Bellmunt J, van Poppel H, et al. EORTC-GU group expert opinion on metastatic renal cell cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45:765-773.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19157861?tool=bestpractice.com关于靶向分子治疗用于非透明细胞 RCC的证据确实存在,但非常有限。[30]La Vecchia C, Negri E, D'Avanzo B, et al. Smoking and renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Res. 1990;50:5231-5233.http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/50/17/5231http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2386932?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Basso M, Cassano A, Barone C. A survey of therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2010;28:121-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19576800?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Choueiri TK, Plantade A, Elson P, et al. Efficacy of sunitinib and sorafenib in metastatic papillary and chromophobe renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:127-131.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18165647?tool=bestpractice.com这些治疗应在具有不良反应治疗经验以及疗效评估经验(评估疾病可能进展和转移的患者是否能够从治疗中获得持续的收益)的肿瘤科医生的监督下进行。
VEGF 抑制剂
旨在抑制血管内皮生长因子 (VEGF) 和血小板衍生生长因子受体 (PDGFR)通路[108]Basso M, Cassano A, Barone C. A survey of therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2010;28:121-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19576800?tool=bestpractice.com的小分子酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(TKI)已彻底改变了转移性 RCC 的系统治疗。
人们发现舒尼替尼优于α干扰素(前者的中位总生存期为 26.4 个月,而α干扰素为 21.8 个月;无进展生存期为 11 个月,而α干扰素 为 5 个月)。[110]Motzer RJ, Hutson TE, Tomczak P, et al. Overall survival and updated results for sunitinib compared with interferon alfa in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:3584-3590.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19487381?tool=bestpractice.com毒性作用包括高血压、手足综合征、腹泻、疲乏、蛋白尿、甲状腺功能障碍、肝毒性以及心脏功能障碍。[111]Hutson TE, Figlin RA, Kuhn JG, et al. Targeted therapies for metastatic renal cell carcinoma: an overview of toxicity and dosing strategies. Oncologist. 2008;13:1084-1096.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18838439?tool=bestpractice.com[112]Faris JE, Moore AF, Daniels GH. Sunitinib (sutent)-induced thyrotoxicosis due to destructive thyroiditis: a case report. Thyroid. 2007;17:1147-1149.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17714037?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Grossmann M, Premaratne E, Desai J, et al. Thyrotoxicosis during sunitinib treatment for renal cell carcinoma. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008;69:669-672.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18394019?tool=bestpractice.com[114]de Groot JW, Links TP, van der Graaf WT. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors causing hypothyroidism in a patient on levothyroxine. Ann Oncol. 2006;17:1719-1720.http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/11/1719http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16731538?tool=bestpractice.com[115]Schmidinger M, Zielinski CC, Vogl UM, et al. Cardiac toxicity of sunitinib and sorafenib in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:5204-5212.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18838713?tool=bestpractice.com[116]Bellmunt J, Szczylik C, Feingold J, et al. Temsirolimus safety profile and management of toxic effects in patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma and poor prognostic features. Ann Oncol. 2008;19:1387-1392.http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/8/1387http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18385198?tool=bestpractice.com尽管存在这些毒性,与干扰素治疗患者相比,舒尼替尼治疗患者的与健康相关的生活质量有所提高。[117]Cella D, Michaelson MD, Bushmakin AG, et al. Health-related quality of life in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma treated with sunitinib vs interferon-alpha in a phase III trial: final results and geographical analysis. Br J Cancer. 2010;102:658-664.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20104222?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Castellano D, del Muro XG, Pérez-Gracia JL, et al. Patient-reported outcomes in a phase III, randomized study of sunitinib versus interferon-{alpha} as first-line systemic therapy for patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma in a European population. Ann Oncol. 2009;20:1803-1812.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19549706?tool=bestpractice.com有一项研究表明,与被认可的治疗剂量相比,即 4 周疗程后停止治疗 2 周,舒尼替尼连续给药并没有更多的在疗效和安全性方面的收益。因此,使用被认可的治疗剂量仍然是标准治疗。[119]Motzer RJ, Hutson TE, Olsen MR, et al. Randomized phase II trial of sunitinib on an intermittent versus continuous dosing schedule as first-line therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30:1371-1377.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22430274?tool=bestpractice.com有研究正在继续评估舒尼替尼的个体化给药方案。[120]US National Institutes of Health. Study of efficacy and safety of sunitinib given on an individualized schedule. Clinicaltrials.gov identifier:
NCT01499121. September 2013. http://clinicaltrials.gov (last accessed 14 January 2015).http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01499121舒尼替尼治疗开始前需测量的基础指标应包含甲状腺功能检查、尿液分析、全血细胞计数、生化检验,如果患者之前存在心力衰竭病史或已知具有心脏危险因素,则还需要评估心脏功能。[101]de Reijke TM, Bellmunt J, van Poppel H, et al. EORTC-GU group expert opinion on metastatic renal cell cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2009;45:765-773.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19157861?tool=bestpractice.com对于这些参数在治疗过程中应多久进行一次评估,这一点并没有明确的共识,但至少应进行以症状为基础的评估。应认真监测血压并及早治疗。舒尼替尼的禁忌症:有充分的证据表明血管生成抑制剂舒尼替尼造成高血压的危险高达 22%。[121]Zhu X, Stergiopoulos K, Wu S. Risk of hypertension and renal dysfunction with an angiogenesis inhibitor sunitinib: systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Oncol. 2009;48:9-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18752081?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
帕唑帕尼是另一种口服酪氨酸激酶抑制剂,在转移性透明细胞 RCC 的一线治疗中,它对无进展生存期的改善作用大于安慰剂(11.1 个月比 2.8 个月)。本项研究的最终总生存率表明两组并无统计学差异;但是在对交叉患者进行校正时发现,帕唑帕尼的死亡率低于安慰剂(风险比为 0.5)。[122]Sternberg CN, Hawkins RE, Wagstaff J, et al. A randomised, double-blind phase III study of pazopanib in patients with advanced and/or metastatic renal cell carcinoma: final overall survival results and safety update. Eur J Cancer. 2013;49:1287-1296.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23321547?tool=bestpractice.com其毒性与其他酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(例如舒尼替尼)相似,其中肝毒性和高血压尤其令人担忧。对比性评估舒尼替尼与帕唑帕尼作为一线治疗的 COMPARZ 研究数据表明,帕唑帕尼在无进展生存期方面的作用并不亚于舒尼替尼。[123]Motzer RJ, Hutson TE, Reeves J, et al. Randomized open-label phase III trial of pazopanib versus sunitinib in first-line treatment of patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (MRCC): results of the COMPARZ trial. ESMO Congress; October 1, 2012; Vienna. Abstract LBA8.https://www.webges.com/cslide/library/esmo/mylibrary/search/session/0/370_135[124]Motzer RJ, Hutson TE, Cella D, et al. Pazopanib versus sunitinib in metastatic renal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:722-731.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1303989#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23964934?tool=bestpractice.com此外,一项针对患者对这两种治疗的偏好的研究结果表明,帕唑帕尼的毒性较小,例如疲乏和口腔黏膜炎(虽然肝毒性较为常见);该研究表明,因为耐受性更好,所以就生活质量而言帕唑帕尼作为一线治疗优于舒尼替尼。[125]Escudier BJ, Porta C, Bono P, et al. Patient preference between pazopanib (Paz) and sunitinib (Sun): Results of a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC)-PISCES study, NCT 01064310. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(suppl):abstract CRA4502).http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/98799-114两种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂均可作为转移性疾病患者的一线治疗,选择时应视个人情况而定。
索拉非尼也是一种对血管内皮细胞生长因子、血小板衍生的生长因子受体以及 Ras/Raf/ERK 通路具有影响的小分子多激酶抑制剂。[108]Basso M, Cassano A, Barone C. A survey of therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2010;28:121-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19576800?tool=bestpractice.com索拉非尼已被证实可改善既往使用 IL-2 或 α 干扰素治疗失败的患者的无进展生存期和临床受益率。[126]Negrier S, Jäger E, Porta C, et al. Efficacy and safety of sorafenib in patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma with and without prior cytokine therapy, a subanalysis of TARGET. Med Oncol. 2010;27:899-906.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19757215?tool=bestpractice.com交叉试验的截尾数据显示,索拉非尼对总生存期的改善具有统计学意义(18 个月比 14 个月)。[127]Escudier B, Eisen T, Stadler WM, et al. Sorafenib for treatment of renal cell carcinoma: Final efficacy and safety results of the phase III treatment approaches in renal cancer global evaluation trial. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27:3312-3318.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19451442?tool=bestpractice.com索拉非尼的毒性与舒尼替尼的相似,但毒性可能较小。[111]Hutson TE, Figlin RA, Kuhn JG, et al. Targeted therapies for metastatic renal cell carcinoma: an overview of toxicity and dosing strategies. Oncologist. 2008;13:1084-1096.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18838439?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Escudier B, Eisen T, Stadler WM, et al. Sorafenib in advanced clear-cell renal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:125-134 (erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2007;357:203).http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa060655#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17215530?tool=bestpractice.com近期,对 3 期数据的分析发现,索拉非尼除了有其他酪氨酸激酶抑制剂相关的副作用外,还会增加肌肉萎缩的风险。[129]Antoun S, Birdsell L, Sawyer MB, et al. Association of skeletal muscle wasting with treatment with sorafenib in patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma: results from a placebo-controlled study. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:1054-1060.http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/28/6/1054.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20085939?tool=bestpractice.com索拉非尼与α干扰素 联合使用可能有益,但是毒性堪忧。[108]Basso M, Cassano A, Barone C. A survey of therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2010;28:121-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19576800?tool=bestpractice.com
贝伐单抗是抗血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)的单克隆抗体。早期试验证明了贝伐单抗单药治疗对有既往免疫治疗史的患者有效。贝伐单抗与α干扰素联合使用的疗效更具说服力,与单独使用干扰素相比,贝伐单抗可以改善无进展生存期;[130]Rini BI, Halabi S, Rosenberg JE, et al. Bevacizumab plus interferon alfa compared with interferon alfa monotherapy in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma: CALGB 90206. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:5422-5428.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18936475?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Escudier B, Eisen T, Stadler WM, et al. Sorafenib in advanced clear-cell renal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:125-134 (erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2007;357:203).http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa060655#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17215530?tool=bestpractice.com这项 3 期试验显示,贝伐单抗组的总生存率较高,但无统计学意义。[131]Rini BI, Halabi S, Rosenberg JE, et al. Phase III trial of bevacizumab plus interferon alfa versus interferon alfa monotherapy in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma: final results of CALGB 90206. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:2137-2143.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20368558?tool=bestpractice.com此外,贝伐单抗尚未与其他口服酪氨酸激酶抑制剂直接对比。一项评估贝伐单抗与m-TOR 抑制剂——替西罗莫司联合用药的研究未能证明,作为一线治疗,前者比舒尼替尼或贝伐单抗与干扰素联合用药更好地改善生存率。[132]Bay J-O, Negrier S, Pérol D, et al. Updated results on long-term overall survival (OS) of the French randomized phase II trial TORAVA in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) patients. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(suppl):abstract 4625.http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/97556-114贝伐单抗与替西罗莫司合并用药的毒性也非常强,且临床受益率低。[133]Négrier S, Gravis G, Pérol D, et al. Temsirolimus and bevacizumab, or sunitinib, or interferon alfa and bevacizumab for patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma (TORAVA): a randomised phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12:673-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21664867?tool=bestpractice.com在一项 3 期研究中,贝伐单抗联合替西罗莫司或贝伐单抗联合干扰素的总生存期相似(均为 25 个月)。[134]Rini BI, Bellmunt J, Clancy J, et al. Randomized phase III trial of temsirolimus and bevacizumab versus interferon alfa and bevacizumab in metastatic renal cell carcinoma: INTORACT trial. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32:752-759.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24297945?tool=bestpractice.com对这两种方法的毒性与功能性的评估各异;但是全球总体对健康指标的测量是相似的。贝伐单抗的不良反应包括乏力、疲乏、高血压、蛋白尿以及胃肠穿孔(罕见)。出血也与贝伐单抗治疗相关,而与其他实体瘤患者相比,RCC 患者出血通常更常见。[135]Hang XF, Xu WS, Wang JX, et al. Risk of high-grade bleeding in patients with cancer treated with bevacizumab: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;67:613-623.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21243343?tool=bestpractice.com贝伐单抗单一治疗或与其他药物联合使用均不是首选的一线治疗。
阿西替尼是第二代血管内皮生长因子受体的选择性强效抑制剂。一项大型的 III 期临床试验在既往只接受过一种全身治疗(这些治疗包括舒尼替尼、贝伐单抗加α干扰素、替西罗莫司或细胞因子)的患者中对阿西替尼与作为二线用药的索拉非尼进行了对比。改善中位无进展生存期(PFS)的主要终点已被满足,结果偏向于阿西替尼,其 PFS 为 8.3 个月,而索拉非尼为 5.7 个月(研究人员评估)。[136]Motzer RJ, Escudier B, Tomczak P, et al. Axitinib versus sorafenib as second-line treatment for advanced renal cell carcinoma: overall survival analysis and updated results from a randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:552-562.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23598172?tool=bestpractice.com最终总生存率和安全结果显示,这两种治疗的总生存期没有差异。进一步分组分析显示,舒张压(DBP)超过 90 mmHg 的患者无论使用哪种药物均比舒张压正常的患者具有更长的总生存期。[136]Motzer RJ, Escudier B, Tomczak P, et al. Axitinib versus sorafenib as second-line treatment for advanced renal cell carcinoma: overall survival analysis and updated results from a randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:552-562.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23598172?tool=bestpractice.com阿西替尼仍然是 mRCC(转移性RCC)有效的二线治疗选择。一项二线治疗的荟萃分析表明,阿西替尼在无进展生存期方面的作用优于索拉非尼和帕唑帕尼。[137]Larkin J, Paine A, Tumur I, et al. Second-line treatments for the management of advanced renal cell carcinoma: systematic review and meta-analysis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2013;14:27-39.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23256638?tool=bestpractice.com一项比较阿西替尼和索拉非尼作为一线治疗的研究结果表明,阿西替尼对无进展生存期有所改善(10.1 个月对比索拉非尼的 6.1 个月);但是并未发现具有显著的统计学差异。但与索拉非尼相比 (14%),阿西替尼的总体缓解率较高(32%)。[138]Hutson TE, Lesovoy V, Al-Shukri S, et al. Axitinib versus sorafenib as first-line therapy in patients with metastatic renal-cell carcinoma: a randomised open-label phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:1287-1294.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206640?tool=bestpractice.com腹泻、高血压和甲状腺功能减退较常见于阿西替尼,而手足综合征和皮疹较常见于索拉非尼。[138]Hutson TE, Lesovoy V, Al-Shukri S, et al. Axitinib versus sorafenib as first-line therapy in patients with metastatic renal-cell carcinoma: a randomised open-label phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:1287-1294.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206640?tool=bestpractice.com大部分监管机构现已批准阿西替尼作为转移性 RCC的二线治疗(在针对转移性疾病的既往治疗期间进展之后)。[139]Rini BI, Escudier B, Tomczak P, et al. Comparative effectiveness of axitinib versus sorafenib in advanced renal cell carcinoma (AXIS): a randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2011;378:1931-1939.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22056247?tool=bestpractice.com早期试验结果表明根据毒性和肿瘤反应进行个体化给药可能有所帮助。[140]Rini BI, Melichar B, Ueda T, et al. Axitinib with or without dose titration for first-line metastatic renal-cell carcinoma: a randomised double-blind phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14:1233-1242.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4120767/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24140184?tool=bestpractice.com
m-TOR 抑制剂
替西罗莫司是一种 m-TOR 抑制剂,已经证实它可以改善无既往治疗史和预后不良的转移性 RCC 患者的总生存率。[141]Hudes G, Carducci M, Tomczak P, et al. Temsirolimus, interferon alfa, or both for advanced renal-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2271-2281.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa066838#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17538086?tool=bestpractice.com最常报告的不良反应有皮疹、乏力、外周水肿、高血糖以及高血脂。禁止联用ACE抑制剂,因为可能会发生皮下血管性水肿。[142]Wyeth Canada. Temsirolimus (Torisel) product monograph. January 2011. http://www.pfizer.ca (last accessed 14 January 2015).http://www.pfizer.ca/en/our_products/products/monograph/277一项评估替西罗莫司与贝伐单抗联合用药的研究未能证明,作为一线治疗,前者与舒尼替尼或贝伐单抗与干扰素联合用药相比可以改善生存率。[132]Bay J-O, Negrier S, Pérol D, et al. Updated results on long-term overall survival (OS) of the French randomized phase II trial TORAVA in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) patients. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(suppl):abstract 4625.http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/97556-114贝伐单抗与替西罗莫司联合用药的毒性也非常强,且临床受益率较低。[133]Négrier S, Gravis G, Pérol D, et al. Temsirolimus and bevacizumab, or sunitinib, or interferon alfa and bevacizumab for patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma (TORAVA): a randomised phase 2 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12:673-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21664867?tool=bestpractice.com在一项 3 期研究中,贝伐单抗联合替西罗莫司与贝伐单抗联合干扰素的总生存期相似(均为 25 个月)。[134]Rini BI, Bellmunt J, Clancy J, et al. Randomized phase III trial of temsirolimus and bevacizumab versus interferon alfa and bevacizumab in metastatic renal cell carcinoma: INTORACT trial. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32:752-759.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24297945?tool=bestpractice.com对这两种方法的毒性与功能性的评估各异;但是全球总体对健康指标的测量是相似的。因此,不推荐在临床上联用替西罗莫司与贝伐单抗。研究还在接受舒尼替尼一线治疗期间疾病出现进展的患者中评估了替西罗莫司与索拉非尼作为转移性疾病二线治疗的疗效。人们发现替西罗莫司 12 个月的中位总生存期逊色于索拉非尼 16 个月的中位总生存期。[143]Hutson TE, Escudier B, Esteban E, et al. Randomized phase III trial of temsirolimus versus sorafenib as second-line therapy after sunitinib in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32:760-767.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24297950?tool=bestpractice.com该研究表明,给酪氨酸激酶抑制剂排序可能更适用于转移性 RCC的治疗。
依维莫司是另一种 m-TOR 抑制剂,一项针对二线或三线治疗用药的大型随机对照试验,其显示有对既往治疗史的患者依维莫司可提高3个月的无进展生存期。[144]Motzer RJ, Escudier B, Oudard S, et al. Efficacy of everolimus in advanced renal cell carcinoma: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled phase III trial. Lancet. 2008;372:449-456.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18653228?tool=bestpractice.com这些患者大部分已接受过酪氨酸激酶抑制剂的治疗(抗血管内皮生长因子治疗,例如舒尼替尼或索拉非尼)。总生存期无统计学差异,但是这可能是交叉研究引进了混淆因素所造成的。当各种模型的数据分析经过调整后,会发现4个月左右的生存期也会获益。[145]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Everolimus for the second-line treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma. April 2011. http://guidance.nice.org.uk/TA219 (last accessed 14 January 2015).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta219/resources/guidance-everolimus-for-the-secondline-treatment-of-advanced-renal-cell-carcinoma-pdf一些权威机构不推荐使用依维莫司作为二线治疗,因为,总生存率仅在建模中有显著意义。[145]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Everolimus for the second-line treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma. April 2011. http://guidance.nice.org.uk/TA219 (last accessed 14 January 2015).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta219/resources/guidance-everolimus-for-the-secondline-treatment-of-advanced-renal-cell-carcinoma-pdf不良反应包括高血糖症、乏力以及肺炎。一项 2 期非劣效性研究的临时数据于 2013 年发表,该研究评估了舒尼替尼一线治疗后使用依维莫司治疗进展性疾病对比依维莫司一线治疗后使用舒尼替尼治疗进展性疾病的顺序(RECORD 3 试验)。依维莫司后使用舒尼替尼非劣效性的主要终点并未达到。此外,舒尼替尼/依维莫司的顺序呈现较好的总生存率趋势。[146]Motzer RJ, Barrios CH, Kim TM, et al. Record-3: phase II randomized trial comparing sequential first-line everolimus (EVE) and second-line sunitinib (SUN) versus first-line SUN and second-line EVE in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(suppl):abstract 4504.http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/113103-132因此,根据这些发现,在酪氨酸激酶抑制剂治疗后使用 m-TOR 抑制剂仍然被做为治疗的模式。[146]Motzer RJ, Barrios CH, Kim TM, et al. Record-3: phase II randomized trial comparing sequential first-line everolimus (EVE) and second-line sunitinib (SUN) versus first-line SUN and second-line EVE in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). J Clin Oncol. 2013;31(suppl):abstract 4504.http://meetinglibrary.asco.org/content/113103-132
一篇Cochrane综述回顾了到目前为止所有应用以VEGF和m-TOR通路为靶向的分子药物来治疗转移性RCC的随机临床试验,并指出:无论是一线或二线治疗,这些分子药物都有助于改善总体无进展生存期。这些治疗极少能完全缓解病情,因此并不是治愈性的。一个无安慰剂对照的试验报告了在与健康相关的生活质量上的收益,[147]Coppin C, Kollmannsberger C, Le L, et al. Targeted therapy for advanced renal cell cancer (RCC): a Cochrane systematic review of published randomised trials. BJU Internl. 2011;108:1556-1563.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21952069?tool=bestpractice.com此类研究数据正在被广泛采集以用于在这些药物之间进行相互比较。
靶向治疗的最佳排序仍然是转移性 RCC 治疗中的一大挑战。一般的方法提供酪氨酸激酶抑制剂作为一线治疗。在这种情况下,有最好的证据表明舒尼替尼或帕唑帕尼具有较好的疗效和可控的毒性。如果患者在一线酪氨酸激酶抑制剂治疗后出现进展,可以尝试另一种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(索拉非尼比安慰剂或替西罗莫司更有效,阿西替尼比索拉非尼更有效)。此后,有数据支持使用 mTOR 抑制剂(即替西罗莫司、依维莫司)作为三线治疗。酪氨酸激酶抑制剂治疗后出现进展的另一种二线治疗选择为,使用依维莫司后联合另一种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(根据既往暴露史和耐受性,选择索拉非尼、阿西替尼、帕唑帕尼或舒尼替尼)作为三线治疗。
靶向分子治疗的其他考量因素。
一般而言,机能状态良好且疾病预后特征良好的 转移性RCC 患者有酪氨酸激酶抑制剂、m-TOR 抑制剂、贝伐单抗和免疫治疗(尤其是 IL-2)的证据。大部分试验已包含仅有透明细胞或透明细胞组织学为主的肿瘤。预后特征不良的患者也可使用m-TOR 抑制剂替西罗莫司治疗,但是 Karnofsky 机能状态量表得分需要超过 70 分。
需要手术的靶向治疗的患者可能在减少出血和愈合并发症方面受益于以下方法:手术前 5 个星期停止使用贝伐单抗,并在手术后 4 个星期重新使用;手术前 24 到 48 小时停止使用酪氨酸激酶抑制剂,并在手术后 3 到 4 个星期重新使用;手术前 7 到 10 天停止使用 m-TOR 抑制剂,应在手术后 3 个星期重新使用。[148]Pignot G, Lebret T, Chekulaev D, et al. Healing and targeted therapies: management in perioperative period? [in French] Prog Urol. 2011;21:166-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21354033?tool=bestpractice.com
特殊患者群
经证实,靶向分子治疗对患有转移性 RCC 的年老患者(年龄超过 65 或 70 岁)与年轻患者有相似的益处;但是对于这些老年患者,应特别考虑合并疾病和器官功能障碍,因为这两种情况可使药物的某些特定毒性出现的可能性更大,或使毒性更明显。[149]Calvo E, Maroto P, del Muro XG, et al. Update from the Spanish Oncology Genitourinary Group on the treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma: focus on special populations. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2010;29(suppl 1):11-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20640588?tool=bestpractice.com
相关临床试验的考量因素
至少在积累足够的关于这类少见的 RCC组织学特征的资料前,应尽可能的考虑让非透明细胞 RCC 的患者加入相关的临床试验。[30]La Vecchia C, Negri E, D'Avanzo B, et al. Smoking and renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Res. 1990;50:5231-5233.http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/50/17/5231http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2386932?tool=bestpractice.com其中一些患者可能仍然对靶向治疗有应答,但对这样的患者人群使用这些治疗时应该视个人情况而定。
化疗
化疗适合机能状态不良、中等或良好的患者;应该仅在其他靶向治疗无效且患者没有试验性治疗可供选择的情况下考虑化疗。
化疗对转移性 RCC 的疗效甚微;有效率通常不到 10%,尚没有足够的证据支持新的化疗方案,并且这些方案的初期表现不尽人意。[108]Basso M, Cassano A, Barone C. A survey of therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2010;28:121-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19576800?tool=bestpractice.com但是,长春碱常用于姑息治疗,有人提出以氟尿嘧啶为基础的治疗方案可能有一些良性收益。[108]Basso M, Cassano A, Barone C. A survey of therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2010;28:121-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19576800?tool=bestpractice.com[150]Stadler WM. Cytotoxic chemotherapy for metastatic renal cell carcinoma. Urologe A. 2004;43(suppl 3):S145-S146.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15164180?tool=bestpractice.com吉西他滨和多柔比星也是具有一定疗效的化疗药物,尤其是针对肉瘤样分化的肿瘤。[151]Hudes GR, Carducci MA, Choueiri TK, et al. NCCN Task Force report: optimizing treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma with molecular targeted therapy. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2011;9(suppl 1):S1-S29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21335444?tool=bestpractice.com病例研究显示,吉西他滨与卡培他滨(口服5-氟尿嘧啶类似物)联合用药可用于缓解在其他治疗后又出现进展的患有侵袭性疾病的患者的症状。[152]Richey SL, Ng C, Lim ZD, et al. Durable remission of metastatic renal cell carcinoma with gemcitabine and capecitabine after failure of targeted therapy. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29:e203-e205.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21172884?tool=bestpractice.com
放疗
辅助放疗对 RCC 没有明确的作用。近期对临床试验的一项荟萃分析显示,早期 RCC的术后放疗 (PORT) 可减少局部复发,但对总生存率没有影响。该综述表明,需要更多的临床试验来确定目前更新的放疗技术是否可作为一种有效的辅助治疗手段。[153]Tunio MA, Hashmi A, Rafi M. Need for a new trial to evaluate postoperative radiotherapy in renal cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Oncol. 2010;21:1839-1845.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20139152?tool=bestpractice.com
原发性肿瘤的体外原位照射可被用以缓解局部症状;放疗还可用于缓解骨转移或某些脏器转移造成的疼痛。体外照射的疗效:有较充分的证据表明姑息性放疗对不具备手术条件的患者有效,无论他们是否出现转移。[154]National Cancer Institute. Renal Cell Cancer Treatment (PDQ®) health professional version. General information about renal cell cancer. January 2017. http://www.cancer.gov (last accessed 8 August 2017).https://www.cancer.gov/types/kidney/hp/kidney-treatment-pdq受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。但众所周知,RCC 是一种抗放疗肿瘤。[155]Cutuli BF, Methlin A, Teissier E, et al. Radiation therapy in the treatment of metastatic renal-cell carcinoma. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1990;348:179-186.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1696735?tool=bestpractice.com
有证据表明,口服酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(例如舒尼替尼)可能增加放疗敏感性,[156]Taussky D, Soulieres D. Hypofractionated radiotherapy with concomitant sunitinib - is there a radiosensitizing effect? Can J Urol. 2009;16:4599-4600.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19364436?tool=bestpractice.com因此这种联合治疗方法值得进一步研究。
伽玛刀手术治疗或立体定向放疗可作为治疗 RCC 脑部转移的选择。[157]Powell JW, Chung CT, Shah HR, et al. Gamma knife surgery in the management of radioresistant brain metastases in high-risk patients with melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, and sarcoma. J Neurosurg. 2008;109(Suppl):122-128.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19123898?tool=bestpractice.com
双磷酸盐治疗
对于转移性 RCC 和骨转移患者,唑来膦酸治疗可显著延迟骨骼相关事件,包括需要增加止痛或放疗的疼痛、病理性骨折和进展性骨病变。[158]Saad F. New research findings on zoledronic acid: survival, pain, and anti-tumour effects. Cancer Treat Rev. 2008;34:183-192.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18061356?tool=bestpractice.com骨转移和/或由转移性 RCC引起高钙血症的患者,在肾功能足以承担的情况下应考虑这一治疗。