胸腔积液的治疗由诱因决定。存在大量胸腔积液的有症状患者可获益于氧疗。[51]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72(Suppl 1):ii1-90.https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/clinical-information/oxygen/2017-emergency-oxygen-guideline/bts-guideline-for-oxygen-use-in-adults-in-healthcare-and-emergency-settings/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com 除非临床怀疑气胸(例如抽吸出游离气体),否则胸腔穿刺后不需要进行胸部 X 线检查。推荐在放置胸腔引流管后进行胸部 X 线检查。[52]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: intensive care unit patients. 2014 [internet publication].https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69452/Narrative/
充血性心力衰竭
对心力衰竭引起的胸腔积液使用利尿剂进行治疗。初始治疗采用袢利尿剂。为避免过度的容量不足,应根据临床体征反应、每日体重及肾功能情况,逐步调整口服或静脉用呋塞米或布美他尼的使用剂量。对于难治性容量超负荷的患者,为改善利尿效果,可以采用将非袢利尿剂(例如氢氯噻嗪或美托拉宗)与袢利尿剂的联合治疗。
如果胸腔积液量较大且引起明显症状,应考虑治疗性胸腔穿刺。从偏侧胸腔去除 1.5 L 积液通常较为安全,并且无复张性肺水肿风险。
感染因素
相当大一部分的肺炎患者会出现肺炎旁积液。[53]Light RW, Girard WM, Jenkinson SG, et al. Parapneumonic effusions. Am J Med. 1980 Oct;69(4):507-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7424940?tool=bestpractice.com 但如果早期使用适合的抗生素治疗,积液通常会消退。[54]Sahn SA. Diagnosis and management of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Oct 24;45(11):1480-6.https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/45/11/1480/334422http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17990232?tool=bestpractice.com
所有患者都应根据当地微生物学指南进行经验性静脉抗生素治疗,以覆盖可能的厌氧和需氧致病菌。胸腔积液的培养结果将进一步指导抗生素的使用。
在社区获得性肺炎旁胸腔积液中,革兰阳性菌是最常见的病原体;肺炎链球菌、米勒链球菌和中间链球菌约占全部病例的 50%,而金黄色葡萄球菌约占全部病例的 11%。革兰阴性菌占 9%,厌氧菌占 20%。[55]Maskell NA, Batt S, Hedley EL, et al. The bacteriology of pleural infection by genetic and standard methods and its mortality significance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Oct 1;174(7):817-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16840746?tool=bestpractice.com 厌氧性病原菌也非常重要,并且表现为更加隐匿的形式。在医院获得性胸膜感染中,相关病原体包括金黄色葡萄球菌(总计 35%,主要是耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌 [MRSA] 占 25%)以及革兰阴性菌 (17%),包括大肠杆菌、肠杆菌和假单胞菌,此外,厌氧菌占 8%。[55]Maskell NA, Batt S, Hedley EL, et al. The bacteriology of pleural infection by genetic and standard methods and its mortality significance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Oct 1;174(7):817-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16840746?tool=bestpractice.com 如果临床病情需要,需通过静脉给予覆盖这些病原体的广谱抗生素。青霉素类抗生素(包括青霉素类联合 β 内酰胺酶抑制剂)、甲硝唑及头孢菌素类抗生素,能够更好地渗入胸膜间隙,但应避免使用氨基糖苷类抗生素。在怀疑医院获得性肺炎感染时,应当覆盖耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌。[55]Maskell NA, Batt S, Hedley EL, et al. The bacteriology of pleural infection by genetic and standard methods and its mortality significance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006 Oct 1;174(7):817-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16840746?tool=bestpractice.com
如果患者的临床状况恶化,并且积液进展为复杂性积液或积脓,应及时去除这些积液。分隔可以 12-24 小时之间形成。治疗性胸腔穿刺对多数患者可能是一种根治性治疗。然而,如果获得的积液含大量脓液,细菌涂片或培养物呈阳性,葡萄糖水平<3.3 mmol/L (60 mg/dL),pH 值<7.20,乳酸脱氢酶水平>1000 U/L,或者积液有分隔,应采用胸腔插管引流这一更积极的措施。
通常可由经过训练的医师在床旁置入管径较粗的引流管(28-36 F)。然而,随着超声引导的使用,采用位置放置准确的细管有可能获得同等有效的引流,而且对患者造成的痛苦更小。
如果胸腔管引流失败,可行胸腔镜黏连松解术、剥除术或开放引流等外科操作。
存在包裹性胸腔积液时,关于使用胸腔内纤溶剂存在争议。在治疗肺炎旁胸腔积液或脓胸时,仅向胸膜腔内滴注纤溶剂无额外获益。[56]Tokuda Y, Matsushima D, Stein GH, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolytic agents for empyema and complicated parapneumonic effusions: a meta-analysis. Chest. 2006 Mar;129(3):783-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16537882?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Cameron R, Davies HR. Intra-pleural fibrinolytic therapy versus conservative management in the treatment of adult parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008 Apr 16;(2):CD002312.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002312.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18425881?tool=bestpractice.com 一项双盲、随机、安慰剂对照临床试验发现,组织型纤溶酶原激活物(tissue plasminogen activator, tPA,一种纤维蛋白溶解剂)与脱氧核糖核酸酶(一种黏度干扰剂)联用,改善了胸膜感染患者的积液引流,降低了手术转诊的频率,并缩短了住院时间。[58]Rahman NM, Maskell NA, West A, et al. Intrapleural use of tissue plasminogen activator and DNase in pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 11;365(6):518-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21830966?tool=bestpractice.com 与安慰剂相比,联合治疗对死亡率或不良事件没有影响。[58]Rahman NM, Maskell NA, West A, et al. Intrapleural use of tissue plasminogen activator and DNase in pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 11;365(6):518-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21830966?tool=bestpractice.com 仅应在抗生素治疗和传统引流无效并且不适合或不愿意手术的患者中,根据患者的具体情况,考虑使用纤维蛋白溶解剂和黏度降解剂联合治疗。[58]Rahman NM, Maskell NA, West A, et al. Intrapleural use of tissue plasminogen activator and DNase in pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 11;365(6):518-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21830966?tool=bestpractice.com
恶性
由于恶性胸腔积液在引流后再次积聚,往往难以处理。治疗性胸腔穿刺可有效缓解症状。然而,对于体能状况良好(Karnofsky 评分>30% 或东部肿瘤协作组 [ECOG] 功能状况评分为 0 或 1)的患者,不推荐将仅胸腔穿刺作为首选治疗。[59]Simoff MJ, Lally B, Slade MG, et al. Symptom management in patients with lung cancer. Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013 May;143(5 suppl):e455-97S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(13)60305-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649452?tool=bestpractice.com 这是因为反复胸腔穿刺存在气胸和脓胸的风险,并且由于胸膜粘连,导致引流操作或胸腔镜检查成功的几率降低。[59]Simoff MJ, Lally B, Slade MG, et al. Symptom management in patients with lung cancer. Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013 May;143(5 suppl):e455-97S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(13)60305-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649452?tool=bestpractice.com
对于预期寿命很短(即数天或数周)的患者,如果反复出现有症状的恶性胸腔积液,则可考虑采用反复治疗性胸腔穿刺术。[59]Simoff MJ, Lally B, Slade MG, et al. Symptom management in patients with lung cancer. Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013 May;143(5 suppl):e455-97S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(13)60305-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649452?tool=bestpractice.com 如果患者预期寿命较长和/或体能状况良好,主要治疗选择包括:插入临时胸腔管,当患者引流完毕时引入滑石粉浆;插入隧道式胸腔留置导管;或者在行内科或外科胸腔镜操作时撒入滑石粉。如果没有胸腔镜检查的禁忌证,ACCP 推荐对肺癌合并恶性积液的患者采用胸腔镜加滑石粉胸膜固定术进行治疗。[59]Simoff MJ, Lally B, Slade MG, et al. Symptom management in patients with lung cancer. Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013 May;143(5 suppl):e455-97S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(13)60305-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649452?tool=bestpractice.com 如果患者希望进行院外治疗(并且在家中方便引流积液),则可以使用留置胸腔导管进行治疗。比较留置导管引流和滑石粉胸膜固定术,在缓解呼吸困难方面无差异,在生活质量改善方面无显著差异。[60]Kheir F, Shawwa K, Alokla K, et al. Tunneled pleural catheter for the treatment of malignant pleural effusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Ther. 2016 Nov/Dec;23(6):e1300-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25654292?tool=bestpractice.com 留置导管引流可缩短住院时间,但存在更多的不良反应。[61]Thomas R, Fysh ET, Smith NA, et al. Effect of an indwelling pleural catheter vs talc pleurodesis on hospitalization days in patients with malignant pleural effusion: the AMPLE randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017 Nov 21;318(19):1903-12.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2664042http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29164255?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Davies HE, Mishra EK, Kahan BC, et al. Effect of an indwelling pleural catheter vs chest tube and talc pleurodesis for relieving dyspnea in patients with malignant pleural effusion: the TIME2 randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2012 Jun 13;307(22):2383-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22610520?tool=bestpractice.com
对于不愿意留置胸腔导管的患者,应当使用硬化剂进行治疗,该治疗旨在引起炎症反应,以使壁层和脏层胸膜粘在一起。滑石粉、博来霉素及四环素是常用的硬化剂。无菌大颗粒滑石粉是胸膜固定术最有效的药物,可以在胸腔镜引导下撒入。[59]Simoff MJ, Lally B, Slade MG, et al. Symptom management in patients with lung cancer. Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2013 May;143(5 suppl):e455-97S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(13)60305-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23649452?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Clive AO, Jones HE, Bhatnagar R, et al. Interventions for the management of malignant pleural effusions: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 May 8;(5):CD010529.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010529.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27155783?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Tan C, Sedrakyan A, Browne J, et al. The evidence on the effectiveness of management for malignant pleural effusion: a systematic review. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2006 May;29(5):829-38.https://academic.oup.com/ejcts/article/29/5/829/363581http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16626967?tool=bestpractice.com有效性:有中等质量证据表明,与其他硬化剂相比,滑石粉是胸膜固定术的最有效药物。[63]Clive AO, Jones HE, Bhatnagar R, et al. Interventions for the management of malignant pleural effusions: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 May 8;(5):CD010529.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010529.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27155783?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 [
]How do interventions for the management of malignant pleural effusions compare?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1295/full显示答案 胸膜固定术较为疼痛,必须使用有效的镇痛剂(包括胸腔内给予利多卡因)。[65]Sherman S, Ravikrishnan KP, Patel AS, et al. Optimum anesthesia with intrapleural lidocaine during chemical pleurodesis with tetracycline. Chest. 1988 Mar;93(3):533-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3342661?tool=bestpractice.com 一项随机临床试验发现,在接受胸膜固定术的恶性胸腔积液患者中,使用非甾体抗炎药 (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, NSAID) 患者的疼痛评分与使用阿片类镇痛剂患者的疼痛评分无显著差异;并且在使用 NSAID 的情况下,3 个月时,其胸膜固定的效果并不比使用阿片类药物差。[66]Rahman NM, Pepperell J, Rehal S, et al. Effect of opioids vs NSAIDs and larger vs smaller chest tube size on pain control and pleurodesis efficacy among patients with malignant pleural effusion: the TIME1 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015 Dec 22-29;314(24):2641-53.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2478201http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26720026?tool=bestpractice.com 应考虑安全使用可诱导清醒下产生麻醉镇静的药物,如苯二氮卓类,并使用血氧仪密切监测。
如果发生“肺萎陷”(即肺的一部分不能复张至胸壁,通常是由活动性疾病引起的脏层胸膜受限导致),则化学胸膜固定术不太可能成功。在恶性肿瘤患者中,这种现象可能由胸膜炎症造成。在这种情况下,可能适合留置胸腔管引流。
对于肿瘤治疗无效的复发性恶性胸腔积液患者,使用胸腔导管可能有助于缓解呼吸系统症状、减少住院率以及完成胸膜固定。[67]Harris K, Chalhoub M. The use of a PleurX catheter in the management of recurrent benign pleural effusion: a concise review. Heart Lung Circ. 2012 Nov;21(11):661-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22898594?tool=bestpractice.com如果壁层和脏层胸膜不能彼此相对滑动,留置胸腔导管 (indwelling pleural catheter, IPC) 是首选干预措施。虽然胸膜固定不是 IPC 治疗的主要治疗终点,但一项系统评价报告,总的自发性胸膜固定率为 45%;[68]Tremblay A, Mason C, Michaud G. Use of tunnelled catheters for malignant pleural effusions in patients fit for pleurodesis. Eur Respir J. 2007 Oct;30(4):759-62.https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/30/4/759.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17567670?tool=bestpractice.com然而,如果将纳入标准限定为可能适合胸膜固定术的患者(复张率≥80%,生存期≥90 天),胸膜固定率升至 70%。[69]Van Meter ME, McKee KY, Kohlwes RJ. Efficacy and safety of tunneled pleural catheters in adults with malignant pleural effusions: a systematic review. J Gen Intern Med. 2011 Jan;26(1):70-6.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11606-010-1472-0http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20697963?tool=bestpractice.com
同时也应尽力对原发病进行治疗。所有医院都应当有当地的胸膜固定术指南。
对于与存在多发包裹/分隔的恶性胸腔积液相关呼吸困难的症状处理,如果单纯引流无效,可以考虑纤溶剂胸膜腔内给药,但尚无支持这种方法的随机临床试验。[70]Davies CW, Traill ZC, Gleeson FV, et al. Intrapleural streptokinase in the management of malignant multiloculated pleural effusions. Chest. 1999 Mar;115(3):729-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10084484?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Gilkeson RC, Silverman P, Haaga JR. Using urokinase to treat malignant pleural effusions. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1999 Sep;173(3):781-3.https://www.ajronline.org/doi/pdf/10.2214/ajr.173.3.10470923http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10470923?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Hsu LH, Soong TC, Feng AC, et al. Intrapleural urokinase for the treatment of loculated malignant pleural effusions and trapped lungs in medically inoperable cancer patients. J Thorac Oncol. 2006 Jun;1(5):460-7.https://www.jto.org/article/S1556-0864(15)31612-9/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17409900?tool=bestpractice.com
复发性良性胸腔积液
复发性良性胸腔积液很常见,可能由不同的因素导致,如炎症、感染或系统性疾病(如充血性心力衰竭、肝性胸水、肺移植术后、冠状动脉旁路移植术后及慢性渗出性胸膜炎)。
如果患者症状没有改善,积液原因不明,疑似结核病或者怀疑胸膜恶性疾病而细胞学检查结果呈阴性,应当考虑采用胸腔镜检查进行诊断。[1]Saguil A, Wyrick K, Hallgren J. Diagnostic approach to pleural effusion. Am Fam Physician. 2014 Jul 15;90(2):99-104.https://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0715/p99.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25077579?tool=bestpractice.com
物理治疗
在一项小型随机对照临床试验中,与标准治疗相比,物理治疗(包括运动技术、肢体训练、深呼吸训练及诱发性肺量计训练)可显著提高用力肺活量、改善胸部 X 线检查结果,并缩短住院天数,这些改善均具有统计学意义。[73]Valenza-Demet G, Valenza M, Cabrera-Martos I, et al. The effects of a physiotherapy programme on patients with a pleural effusion: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2014 Nov;28(11):1087-95.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733648?tool=bestpractice.com
采用 Seldinger 技术插入肋间引流管的动画演示
插入肋间引流管:开放技术的动画演示