颅骨骨折的关键危险因素包括男性、[3]Ersahin Y, Mutluer S, Mirzai H, et al. Pediatric depressed skull fractures: analysis of 530 cases. Childs Nerv Syst. 1996;12:323-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8816297?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. Minor head injury: guidelines for the use of CT - a multicenter validation study. Radiology. 2007;245:831-838.http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2452061509http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17911536?tool=bestpractice.com跌倒、[2]Besenski N. Traumatic injuries: imaging of head injuries. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:1237-1252.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12042929?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Galarneau MR, Woodruff SI, Dye JL, et al. Traumatic brain injury during Operation Iraqi Freedom: findings from the United States Navy-Marine Corps Combat Trauma Registry. J Neurosurg. 2008;108:950-957.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18447712?tool=bestpractice.com机动车交通事故 (MVA)、[1]Servadei F, Ciucci G, Pagano F, et al. Skull fracture as a risk factor of intracranial complications in minor head injuries: a prospective CT study in a series of 98 adult patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51:526-528.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3379426?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Besenski N. Traumatic injuries: imaging of head injuries. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:1237-1252.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12042929?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Ersahin Y, Mutluer S, Mirzai H, et al. Pediatric depressed skull fractures: analysis of 530 cases. Childs Nerv Syst. 1996;12:323-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8816297?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Galarneau MR, Woodruff SI, Dye JL, et al. Traumatic brain injury during Operation Iraqi Freedom: findings from the United States Navy-Marine Corps Combat Trauma Registry. J Neurosurg. 2008;108:950-957.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18447712?tool=bestpractice.com殴打[9]Al-Haddad SA, Kirollos R. A 5-year study of the outcome of surgically treated depressed skull fractures. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2002;84:196-200.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2503833/pdf/annrcse01637-0060.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12092875?tool=bestpractice.com及枪伤。但是,颅骨骨折甚至可见于轻微头部外伤患者,[1]Servadei F, Ciucci G, Pagano F, et al. Skull fracture as a risk factor of intracranial complications in minor head injuries: a prospective CT study in a series of 98 adult patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51:526-528.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3379426?tool=bestpractice.com且可占急诊科就诊的所有儿科头部外伤的 2%-20%,轻微成人头部外伤的 5.8%。[5]Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. Minor head injury: guidelines for the use of CT - a multicenter validation study. Radiology. 2007;245:831-838.http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2452061509http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17911536?tool=bestpractice.com因此,即使是轻微的头部损伤,也必须保持高度怀疑水平。除颅底骨折外,孤立性颅骨骨折很少表现出任何临床体征。一项研究表明仅 2.1% 的骨折患者具有损伤的临床体征;且这些体征(出现时)均为非特异性。[5]Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. Minor head injury: guidelines for the use of CT - a multicenter validation study. Radiology. 2007;245:831-838.http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2452061509http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17911536?tool=bestpractice.com
尽早识别伴颅内损伤的患者非常重要,以便进行紧急处理。初次就诊时应评估患者的神经系统功能状况并随后进行监测,以便帮助指导治疗决策。对于高风险患者或神经系统功能状况出现恶化的患者,则应考虑头部和脑部 CT 扫描。[23]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Head injury: assessment and early management. June 2017. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 17 August 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg176/[24]Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:100-105.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200007133430204#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10891517?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT head rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet. 2001;357:1391-1396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11356436?tool=bestpractice.com
病史
患者可能报告外伤史。这可能包括跌倒(尤其是从高处)、[2]Besenski N. Traumatic injuries: imaging of head injuries. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:1237-1252.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12042929?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Galarneau MR, Woodruff SI, Dye JL, et al. Traumatic brain injury during Operation Iraqi Freedom: findings from the United States Navy-Marine Corps Combat Trauma Registry. J Neurosurg. 2008;108:950-957.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18447712?tool=bestpractice.comMVA、[1]Servadei F, Ciucci G, Pagano F, et al. Skull fracture as a risk factor of intracranial complications in minor head injuries: a prospective CT study in a series of 98 adult patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51:526-528.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3379426?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Besenski N. Traumatic injuries: imaging of head injuries. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:1237-1252.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12042929?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Ersahin Y, Mutluer S, Mirzai H, et al. Pediatric depressed skull fractures: analysis of 530 cases. Childs Nerv Syst. 1996;12:323-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8816297?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Galarneau MR, Woodruff SI, Dye JL, et al. Traumatic brain injury during Operation Iraqi Freedom: findings from the United States Navy-Marine Corps Combat Trauma Registry. J Neurosurg. 2008;108:950-957.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18447712?tool=bestpractice.com或殴打。[9]Al-Haddad SA, Kirollos R. A 5-year study of the outcome of surgically treated depressed skull fractures. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2002;84:196-200.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2503833/pdf/annrcse01637-0060.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12092875?tool=bestpractice.com外伤可能相对较轻。[5]Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. Minor head injury: guidelines for the use of CT - a multicenter validation study. Radiology. 2007;245:831-838.http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2452061509http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17911536?tool=bestpractice.com
现主诉可能是由颅骨骨折本身或与之有关的损伤导致。
颅底骨折还可影响颅神经,导致听力损伤、面神经麻痹 (VII) 或麻木 (V) 及眼球震颤。面神经 (VII) 损伤可能导致感音神经性听力受损。早期(< 3 周)因鼓室积血伴颞骨骨折或晚期(> 6 周)因纵向颞骨骨折伴听骨链中断可能会出现传导性听力受损。
特异性较差的特征包括颅骨疼痛和肿胀,患者可主诉头痛和/或恶心。他们可能存在意识丧失,这可能与相关的颅内病变而非骨折本身有关。
对于儿童,应考虑任何因非意外伤害到医院就诊的既往史。这一点和与病史相矛盾的任何临床体征和症状(例如不明原因瘀伤、相对于年龄而言生长缓慢)将提示医师考虑虐待儿童为潜在病因。
颅脑检查
应人工检查颅骨是否有骨骼变形。皮肤/软组织撕裂伤(或创伤)伴可见的暴露型断骨或骨折碎片提示颅骨骨折。但是,可触及的骨皮质轮廓变化(塌陷)或可触及的骨折碎片比较罕见。
大部分患者要么无损伤,要么有外伤的非特异性证据,例如软组织肿胀、血肿、捻发音、裂伤及压痛。精神状态变化和意识丧失与潜在的相关颅内损伤有关,在孤立性颅骨骨折中非常少见(存在于 25% 的凹陷型骨折中)。与成人相比,儿童的颅脑血肿更具有颅骨骨折的提示作用。[26]Gravel J, Gouin S, Chalut D, et al. Derivation and validation of a clinical decision rule to identify young children with skull fracture following isolated head trauma. CMAJ. 2015;187:1202-1208.http://www.cmaj.ca/content/187/16/1202.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26350911?tool=bestpractice.com不明原因的牙齿损伤和/或舌或唇系带撕裂提示应考虑存在虐待儿童。
颅底骨折通常具有特异性临床特征。这些骨折引起的血液滞积可导致乳突区瘀斑(例如巴特尔体征)、眶周瘀斑(浣熊眼)(尤其为单侧时)及血性耳漏。脑脊液漏可导致脑脊液鼻漏或耳漏。检测颅底骨折时,单侧浣熊眼的阳性预测值为 85%,巴特尔体征的阳性预测值为 66%,而血性耳漏的阳性预测值则为 46%。[27]Pretto Flores L, De Almeida CS, Casulari LA. Positive predictive values of selected clinical signs associated with skull base fractures. J Neurosurg Sci. 2000;44:77-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11105835?tool=bestpractice.com此外,这些体征可能有助于定位颅底骨折:巴特尔体征和耳漏最可能与颞骨岩部骨折有关;眶周瘀斑和脑脊液鼻漏则更可能与颅前窝骨折有关。[27]Pretto Flores L, De Almeida CS, Casulari LA. Positive predictive values of selected clinical signs associated with skull base fractures. J Neurosurg Sci. 2000;44:77-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11105835?tool=bestpractice.com没有数据支持“晕轮”特征的使用,使用“晕轮”特征时可通过将液体沉积于滤纸上时形成的“晕轮”来区分血液/黏液和脑脊液,以此作为脑脊液漏的一种特异性或敏感性标志物。[28]Dula D, Fales W. The "ring sign:" is it a reliable indicator for cerebral spinal fluid? Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:718-720.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8457102?tool=bestpractice.com
神经系统检查
初次就诊时应评估患者的神经功能状况并随后进行监测,以便帮助指导治疗决策。通常采用格拉斯哥昏迷量表评分 (GCS) 评估任何相关的外伤性脑损伤。[29]Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: a practical scale. Lancet. 1974;2:81-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4136544?tool=bestpractice.com它还可为评估是否需要进行 CT 影像学检查提供指导。[24]Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:100-105.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200007133430204#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10891517?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT head rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet. 2001;357:1391-1396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11356436?tool=bestpractice.com
应检查瞳孔大小、对称性、直接/间接对光反射及瞳孔扩大/固定的持续时间。瞳孔反射异常可提示脑疝或脑干损伤。
GCS 有三个构成要素:最佳睁眼反应 (E)、最佳语言反应 (V) 及最佳运动反应 (M)。
睁眼反应:能自行睁眼(4 分);呼之能睁眼(3 分);刺痛能睁眼(2 分);不能睁眼(1 分)
语言反应:定向正确,语言流利、连贯(5 分);定向有误,言语混乱(4 分);语无伦次(3 分);语言费解(2 分);无任何反应(1 分)
运动反应:可依指令完成动作(6 分);可定位刺激位置(5 分);实施刺激时,肢体回缩(4 分);去皮质或屈肌姿势(3 分);去大脑或伸肌姿势(2 分);无任何反应(1 分)。
GCS 总分是睁眼反应、语言反应及运动反应评分总和(介于 3-15 分之间):
GCS 13-15 分与轻度脑损伤有关
GCS 9-12 分与中度脑损伤有关
头部脑部 CT 扫描
CT 仍然是首选的影像学模式,且对儿科和成人患者的颅骨骨折检测均优于 MRI。[30]Roguski M, Morel B, Sweeney M, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging as an alternative to computed tomography in select patients with traumatic brain injury: a retrospective comparison. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;15:529-534.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25700122?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Mulroy MH, Loyd AM, Frush DP, et al. Evaluation of pediatric skull fracture imaging techniques. Forensic Sci Int. 2012; 214:167-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21880443?tool=bestpractice.com有颅骨骨折提示性特征(例如 Battle 体征、眶周瘀斑、鼻溢或耳漏)的所有患者均应进行头颅 CT 检查。颅底骨折最难检测;应进行薄层 CT 扫描[32]Orman G, Wagner MW, Seeburg D, et al. Pediatric skull fracture diagnosis: should 3D CT reconstructions be added as routine imaging? J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;16:426-431.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26186360?tool=bestpractice.com且应包括一些类型的三维重建。[33]Provenzale J. CT and MR imaging of acute cranial trauma. Emerg Radiol. 2007;14:1-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17318483?tool=bestpractice.com一项关于三种不同重建技术的研究显示具有最佳敏感性的高分辨率多平面重建 (high-resolution multiplanar reformation, HRMPR) 联合最大密度投影 (maximum intensity projection, MIP) 重建,是目前的标准检查。[34]Ringl H, Schernthaner R, Philipp MO, et al. Three-dimensional fracture visualisation of multidetector CT of the skull base in trauma patients: comparison of three reconstruction algorithms. Eur Radiol. 2009;19:2416-2424.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19440716?tool=bestpractice.comMIP 重建使检出率提高 18%;且与 HRMPR 相比,MIP 重建可检测出不同类型的骨折。[35]Ringl H, Schernthaner RE, Schueller G, et al. The skull unfolded: a cranial CT visualization algorithm for fast and easy detection of skull fractures. Radiology. 2010;255:553-562.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20332373?tool=bestpractice.com如果多名放射科医生审查图像,则可提高骨折检出率。[34]Ringl H, Schernthaner R, Philipp MO, et al. Three-dimensional fracture visualisation of multidetector CT of the skull base in trauma patients: comparison of three reconstruction algorithms. Eur Radiol. 2009;19:2416-2424.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19440716?tool=bestpractice.com
如果怀疑血管性损伤,例如骨折累及颈动脉管或覆盖血管时(例如脑膜中动脉、矢状窦),可采取常规 CT 的其他辅助措施,包括使用定位脑脊液漏源的鞘内造影和 CT 血管造影术。
但是,由于体格检查时颅骨骨折经常无临床症状或体征,但却属于颅内病变的显著危险因素,对哪些患者进行扫描这一问题非常重要。一项关于几种头部外伤影像学指南的大型研究发现,检测病变的敏感性增高也与大量不必要的 CT 扫描有关。[5]Smits M, Dippel DW, de Haan GG, et al. Minor head injury: guidelines for the use of CT - a multicenter validation study. Radiology. 2007;245:831-838.http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2452061509http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17911536?tool=bestpractice.com其中,创伤发现和神经外科干预的最高敏感性和特异性的最佳指南源自英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所 (NICE UK) 最佳标准。[23]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Head injury: assessment and early management. June 2017. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 17 August 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg176/这些指南建议,应在以下情况下进行 CT 扫描:
初始 GCS 评分<13 分的任何患者
观察 2 个小时后 GCS 评分<15 分的任何患者
有以下情况的任何患者:疑似开放性或凹陷型颅骨骨折;任何颅底骨折体征(例如鼓室积血、浣熊眼、耳或鼻出现脑脊液漏、巴特尔体征);外伤后癫痫发作;局灶性神经系统功能障碍;反复呕吐
对于持续存在头部损伤和无头颅 CT 扫描其他适应症、服用华法林的成人和儿童,应在受伤后 8 小时内进行脑部 CT 扫描。
对于儿童,出现以下情况时应进行头颅 CT 扫描:疑似非意外伤害;GCS 评分<14 分(或 GCS 评分<15 分的 1 岁以下儿童);观察 2 个小时后 GCS 评分<15 分;及头部有瘀伤、肿胀或 5 cm 以上裂伤的 1 岁以下儿童
自受伤后经历某种程度的意识丧失或失忆的成人如存在以下任何一种危险因素,则应在头部受伤后 8 小时内进行头颅 CT 扫描:
2012 年发表的 71 项研究的meta 分析确认了上述多项 NICE UK 标准的预测值,分析显示癫痫发作、持续呕吐及凝血功能障碍均显著预示轻度脑损伤患者的阳性头颅 CT 扫描结果。[36]Pandor A, Harnan S, Goodare S, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of clinical characteristics for identifying CT abnormality after minor brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2012;29:707-718.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21806474?tool=bestpractice.com
指导影像学检查的其他评估标准包括新奥尔良标准[24]Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:100-105.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200007133430204#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10891517?tool=bestpractice.com及加拿大头颅 CT 扫描规范。[25]Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT head rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet. 2001;357:1391-1396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11356436?tool=bestpractice.com
新奥尔良标准:[24]Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:100-105.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200007133430204#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10891517?tool=bestpractice.com
加拿大头颅 CT 规范:[25]Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT head rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet. 2001;357:1391-1396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11356436?tool=bestpractice.com
美国放射学会适用性标准 ® (American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria®)[37]American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria: head trauma. 2015. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 16 August 2017).https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69481/Narrative/
其中,4,5,6 = 可能适用, 7,8,9 = 通常适用。
附加影像学检查
颅骨 X 光
先用平片协助筛查适合进行 CT 扫描的患者。但是,它们不能提供其他信息且敏感性较差,无法检出任何相关的颅内病变。[31]Mulroy MH, Loyd AM, Frush DP, et al. Evaluation of pediatric skull fracture imaging techniques. Forensic Sci Int. 2012; 214:167-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21880443?tool=bestpractice.com由于已广泛可用 CT 扫描协助检测颅内病变,不再建议将颅骨 X 光平片作为儿童或成人的一线检查。但是,如果无法进行 CT 扫描,则可将其作为临时辅助检查。
脑部 MRI 扫描
不建议将 MRI 用于初次或常规颅骨骨折评估。但是,它可以作为有用的辅助或二次影像学检查。其主要作用是增加相关颅内病变的检出率。MRI 可检测出 CT 扫描无法发现的弥漫性轴索损伤,且可以使颅内出血(硬膜外/硬膜下)的检出率增加高达 30%。[2]Besenski N. Traumatic injuries: imaging of head injuries. Eur Radiol. 2002;12:1237-1252.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12042929?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Roguski M, Morel B, Sweeney M, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging as an alternative to computed tomography in select patients with traumatic brain injury: a retrospective comparison. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;15:529-534.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25700122?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Provenzale J. CT and MR imaging of acute cranial trauma. Emerg Radiol. 2007;14:1-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17318483?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Bruce DA. Imaging after head trauma: why, when and which. Childs Nerv Syst. 2000;16:755-759.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11151728?tool=bestpractice.com因此,如果 CT 扫描没有发现颅内病变但持续存在疑虑时,可考虑 MRI。
如果骨折累及主要脉管系统结构(例如颈动脉管或上矢状窦),MRI 和 MR 血管造影可能有助于评估潜在的血管性损伤/病变。[33]Provenzale J. CT and MR imaging of acute cranial trauma. Emerg Radiol. 2007;14:1-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17318483?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Dempewolf R, Gubbels S, Hansen MR. Acute radiographic workup of blunt temporal bone trauma: maxillofacial versus temporal bone CT. Laryngoscope. 2009;119:442-448.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19235746?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Zhao X, Rizzo A, Malek B, et al. Basilar skull fracture: a risk factor for transverse/sigmoid venous sinus obstruction. J Neurotrauma. 2008;25:104-111.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18260793?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Donovan DJ. Simple depressed skull fracture causing sagittal sinus stenosis and increased intracranial pressure: case report and review of the literature. Surg Neurol. 2005;63:380-383.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15808730?tool=bestpractice.com
颈椎影像学检查
以前认为颅骨骨折(特别是枕髁骨折)与高风险的颈椎损伤相关。但数项研究发现并无此类关联。[42]Kim PD, Jennings JS, Fisher M, et al. Risk of cervical spine injury and other complications seen with skull fractures in the setting of mild closed head injury in young children: a retrospective study. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2008;44:124-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18230926?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Oller DW, Meredith JW, Rutledge R, et al. The relationship between face or skull fractures and cervical spine and spinal cord injuries: a review of 13,834 patients. Acid Anal Prev. 1992;24:1887-1892.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1558627?tool=bestpractice.com应根据临床检查、怀疑程度、患者年龄及损伤机制,由主诊医师决定是否进行颈椎影像学检查。
脑部超声检查
可作为已确诊骨折儿科患者脑部 CT 的一种有用的辅助检查,以检测硬脑膜撕裂、脑疝或生长性颅骨骨折。超声还可用于有轻微头部外伤儿科患者颅骨骨折的筛查。[44]Parri N, Crosby BJ, Glass C, et al. Ability of emergency ultrasonography to detect pediatric skull fractures: a prospective, observational study. J Emerg Med. 2013;44:135-141.http://www.jem-journal.com/article/S0736-4679(12)00261-2/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22579023?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Rabiner JE, Friedman LM, Khine H, et al. Accuracy of point-of-care ultrasound for diagnosis of skull fractures in children. Pediatrics. 2013;131:e1757-e1764.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23690519?tool=bestpractice.com
骨骼检查
实验室检查
对于任何有头部外伤和耳漏/鼻溢的患者,存在蛋白质时,对可疑液体进行免疫检测(β-2 转铁蛋白试验)时,可呈阳性。
如果鼻或耳出现透明或微带血性引流液,则应进行该试验。
如果呈阳性,则表明脑脊液漏且即使存在血液或黏液时结果也可靠。其敏感性几乎达 100%,特异性达 95%。[46]Abuabara A. Cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhoea: diagnosis and management. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2007;12:E397-E400.http://www.medicinaoral.com/medoralfree01/v12i5/medoralv12i5p397.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17767107?tool=bestpractice.com