治疗的主要目标是尽最大可能控制癫痫发作(首选单药治疗),且无不良反应或不良反应甚微。结构化治疗方法有一定用处。
短时间内多次局灶性(部分性)癫痫发作
该组是指在癫痫发作时就医,或者出现多次反复的急性癫痫发作的患者。这些指南提供了有关长期性或反复癫痫发作治疗疗效、安全性和耐受性问题的循证医学答案,并且将这些答案整合到治疗流程中。[58]Glauser T, Shinnar S, Gloss D, et al. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children and adults: report of the Guideline Committee of the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsy Curr. 2016 Jan-Feb;16(1):48-61.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4749120/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26900382?tool=bestpractice.com
紧急给予苯二氮卓类、苯妥英衍生物(苯妥英或磷苯妥英)或静脉用左乙拉西坦可迅速终止癫痫发作。使用上述治疗后如果癫痫发作仍然持续,则可静脉使用巴比妥类药物或麻醉剂。
可以通过口服(若患者有反应)、肌肉或静脉途径给予苯二氮卓类。也可经直肠给予地西泮。经静脉途径给予苯二氮卓类时,必须确保气道通畅,并密切监测呼吸,因为可能引起呼吸抑制。需要时给予呼吸机辅助呼吸。由于某些苯二氮卓类的作用持续时间较长,处方者应警惕其镇静作用可能叠加于癫痫发作后状态时出现的意识障碍,特别是多次给予药物时。
基础病因的治疗
由于局灶性癫痫发作的病因众多,应对因治疗。抗癫痫药 (Antiepileptic drugs, AED) 并不总是能够中止局灶性癫痫发作,但可以有助于防止其扩散。首次非诱发性癫痫发作后接受治疗可降低后续癫痫发作的风险,但对处于缓解期的患者比例没有长期影响。必须根据患者个人偏好和具体情况决定在首次非诱发性癫痫发作之后如何开始个体化抗癫痫药物治疗。[59]Leone MA, Giussani G, Nolan SJ, et al. Immediate antiepileptic drug treatment, versus placebo, deferred, or no treatment for first unprovoked seizure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 May 6;(5):CD007144.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007144.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27150433?tool=bestpractice.com
<60 岁的成人
AED 是实现局灶性癫痫发作长期控制的第一步。如果患者有至少 2 次非诱发性癫痫发作,或一次癫痫发作伴有异常脑电图 (EEG)(例如颞叶棘波),则开始单药治疗试验。[60]Kim LG, Johnson TL, Marson AG, et al; MRC MESS Study Group. Prediction of risk of seizure recurrence after a single seizure and early epilepsy: further results from the MESS trial. Lancet Neurol. 2006 Apr;5(4):317-22.https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422%2806%2970383-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16545748?tool=bestpractice.com 常用的一线 AED 包括拉莫三嗪、[61]Ramaratnam S, Panebianco M, Marson AG. Lamotrigine add-on for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jun 22;(6):CD001909.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001909.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27329345?tool=bestpractice.com 左乙拉西坦、奥卡西平或卡马西平。[62]Koch MW, Polman SK. Oxcarbazepine versus carbamazepine monotherapy for partial onset seizures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Oct 7;(4):CD006453.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006453.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19821367?tool=bestpractice.com 其他可用于单药治疗的 AED 包括拉科酰胺 (lacosamide) 和艾斯利卡西平 (eslicarbazepine)。一项 Cochrane 评价支持将卡马西平和拉莫三嗪用作局灶性起源癫痫发作成人患者的一线治疗药物,如果卡马西平和拉莫三嗪不适合或不耐受,左乙拉西坦则是一种合适的替代药物。[63]Nevitt SJ, Sudell M, Weston J, et al. Antiepileptic drug monotherapy for epilepsy: a network meta-analysis of individual participant data. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Dec 15;(12):CD011412.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011412.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29243813?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do antiepileptic drugs compare for people with focal epilepsy?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1802/full显示答案
如果患者对初始 AED 无反应,则适合进行第二种单药治疗,自一线或二线药物中进行选择(丙戊酸、左乙拉西坦、托吡酯或唑尼沙胺)。[64]Brodie MJ, Perucca E, Ryvlin P, et al; Levetiracetam Monotherapy Study Group. Comparison of levetiracetam and controlled-release carbamazepine in newly diagnosed epilepsy. Neurology. 2007 Feb 6;68(6):402-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17283312?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Ben-Menachem E, Sander JW, Stefan H, et al. Topiramate monotherapy in the treatment of newly or recently diagnosed epilepsy. Clin Ther. 2008 Jul;30(7):1180-95.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18691980?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Pulman J, Jette N, Dykeman J, et al. Topiramate add-on for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Feb 25;(2):CD001417.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001417.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24570033?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Mbizvo GK, Dixon P, Hutton JL, et al. Levetiracetam add-on for drug-resistant focal epilepsy: an updated Cochrane Review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Sep 12;(9):CD001901.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001901.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22972056?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Baulac M, Brodie MJ, Patten A, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of zonisamide versus controlled-release carbamazepine for newly diagnosed partial epilepsy: A phase 3, randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Neurol. 2012 Jul;11(7):579-88.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22683226?tool=bestpractice.com[69]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Partial-onset seizures in epilepsy: zonisamide as monotherapy. Apr 2013 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/esnm17/chapter/Overview[70]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Partial seizures in children and young people with epilepsy: zonisamide as adjunctive therapy. Mar 2014 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/esnm37 最新获得批准的 AED 是布瓦西坦 (brivaracetam),这是一种左乙拉西坦衍生物,对突触前 SV2 蛋白的亲合力更高,但这种药物的临床使用经验有限。[71]Ben-Menachem E, Mameniškienė R, Quarato PP, et al. Efficacy and safety of brivaracetam for partial-onset seizures in 3 pooled clinical studies. Neurology. 2016 Jul 19;87(3):314-23.http://n.neurology.org/content/87/3/314.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27335114?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Lattanzi S, Cagnetti C, Foschi N, et al. Brivaracetam add-on for refractory focal epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology. 2016 Apr 5;86(14):1344-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26944275?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Biton V, Berkovic SF, Abou-Khalil B, et al. Brivaracetam as adjunctive treatment for uncontrolled partial epilepsy in adults: a phase III randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia. 2014 Jan;55(1):57-66.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/epi.12433http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24446953?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Klein P, Schiemann J, Sperling MR, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, parallel-group study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of adjunctive brivaracetam in adult patients with uncontrolled partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2015 Dec;56(12):1890-8.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/epi.13212http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26471380?tool=bestpractice.com
选择了第二种药物,则应缓慢撤停现用药物,逐渐加用第二种新药;不可骤然加用或停用药物(引入新药的过程中逐渐减少第一种 AED 剂量)。在指导患者如何换药前,应注意每一药物的特定药代动力学特征。常需要一个书面指导来帮助患者,提高依从性。应根据患者反应和血药浓度调整剂量。应忠告患者,这一过渡期间癫痫发作的风险会增高。
If the patient does not respond to 2 separate monotherapy trials, then a polytherapy trial may be initiated using two first-line AEDs combined [
]What are the benefits and harms of lamotrigine add-on in adults or children with drug-resistant partial epilepsy?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1474/full显示答案
或者选用二线治疗药物(例如拉科酰胺、普瑞巴林、艾司利卡西平、吡仑帕奈或氯巴占)进行治疗。[75]Harris JA, Murphy JA. Lacosamide: an adjunctive agent for partial-onset seizures and potential therapy for neuropathic pain. Ann Pharmacother. 2009 Nov;43(11):1809-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19843834?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Ben-Menachem E, Biton V, Jatuzis D, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral lacosamide as adjunctive therapy in adults with partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2007 Jul;48(7):1308-17.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2007.01188.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17635557?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Halász P, Kälviäinen R, Mazurkiewicz-Beldzińska M, et al; SP755 Study Group. Adjunctive lacosamide for partial-onset seizures: efficacy and safety results from a randomized controlled trial. Epilepsia. 2009 Mar;50(3):443-53.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01951.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19183227?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Chung S, Sperling MR, Biton V, et al; SP754 Study Group. Lacosamide as adjunctive therapy for partial-onset seizures: a randomized controlled trial. Epilepsia. 2010 Jun;51(6):958-67.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02496.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20132285?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Chung S, Ben-Menachem E, Sperling MR, et al. Examining the clinical utility of lacosamide: pooled analyses of three phase II/III clinical trials. CNS Drugs. 2010 Dec;24(12):1041-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21090838?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Simoens S. Lacosamide as adjunctive therapy for partial-onset epileptic seizures: a review of the clinical and economic literature. Curr Med Res Opin. 2011 Jul;27(7):1329-38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21561394?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Pulman J, Hemming K, Marson AG. Pregabalin add-on for drug-resistant partial epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Mar 12;(3):CD005612.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005612.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24623260?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Joshi R, Tripathi M, Gupta P, et al. Effect of clobazam as add-on antiepileptic drug in patients with epilepsy. Indian J Med Res. 2014 Aug;140(2):209-15.http://www.ijmr.org.in/article.asp?issn=0971-5916;year=2014;volume=140;issue=2;spage=209;epage=215;aulast=Joshihttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25297352?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Gidal BE, Laurenza A, Hussein Z, et al. Perampanel efficacy and tolerability with enzyme-inducing AEDs in patients with epilepsy. Neurology. 2015 May 12;84(19):1972-80.http://n.neurology.org/content/84/19/1972.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25878177?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Arya R, Anand V, Garg SK, et al. Clobazam monotherapy for partial-onset or generalized-onset seizures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Oct 4;(10):CD009258.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009258.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25280512?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How does lacosamide add-on therapy compare with placebo in people with partial epilepsy?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1448/full显示答案
也可考虑其他药物作为难治性病例的辅助治疗,例如卢非酰胺、[85]Brodie MJ, Rosenfeld WE, Vazquez B, et al. Rufinamide for the adjunctive treatment of partial seizures in adults and adolescents: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia. 2009 Aug;50(8):1899-909.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02160.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19490053?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Wisniewski CS. Rufinamide: a new antiepileptic medication for the treatment of seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Ann Pharmacother. 2010 Apr;44(4):658-67.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20233912?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Biton V, Krauss G, Vasquez-Santana B, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of rufinamide as adjunctive therapy for refractory partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2011 Feb;52(2):234-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20887365?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Verrotti A, Loiacono G, Ballone E, et al. Efficacy of rufinamide in drug-resistant epilepsy: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Neurol. 2011 May;44(5):347-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21481742?tool=bestpractice.com 氨己烯酸、[89]Hemming K, Maguire MJ, Hutton JL, et al. Vigabatrin for refractory partial epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jan 31;(1):CD007302.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007302.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23440814?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Xiao Y, Gan L, Wang J, et al. Vigabatrin versus carbamazepine monotherapy for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Nov 18;(11):CD008781.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008781.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26580100?tool=bestpractice.com 和非尔氨酯[91]Shi LL, Dong J, Ni H, et al. Felbamate as an add-on therapy for refractory partial epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jul 18;(7):CD008295.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008295.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28718506?tool=bestpractice.com ,但作者认为,应仅在尝试过多种其他药物且确定不能选择手术时方可考虑该类药物。若考虑使用该类药物,应有一名癫痫专科医师参与。
经过 2 次单药治疗和 1 次多药治疗后,只有少部分局灶性癫痫患者的发作可完全控制。[92]Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2000 Feb 3;342(5):314-9.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJM200002033420503http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10660394?tool=bestpractice.com 另有一项研究发现,有 16.6% 的患者尽管在 2-5 种不同的 AED 治疗失败后,仍可实现无癫痫发作;然而还有一些患者虽然经过 6 或 7 种 AED 治疗后癫痫发作没有得到完全控制,但他们的发作频率会降低。[93]Schiller Y, Najjar Y. Quantifying the response to antiepileptic drugs: effect of past treatment history. Neurology. 2008 Jan 1;70(1):54-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18166707?tool=bestpractice.com AED 治疗失败的确定在很大程度上取决于患者基线时的癫痫发作频率。一个月有 6 次癫痫发作的患者与一年有 6 次癫痫发作的患者相比,由于观察期的长短,前者更容易判断是否缺乏治疗反应。此外,必须考虑用药依从性、达到治疗剂量所需的时间窗和药物耐受性。
影响联合用药方案中 2 种药物选择的因素包括:AED 的不同作用机制、药物间相互作用最小或是否具有协同作用。罕有临床试验提供了哪种联用更为有效或更倾向于联合应用。AED 的选择可能受共病的影响:
对于出现局灶性癫痫发作及偏头痛的患者,首选托吡酯或丙戊酸等 AED,因为它们均对预防偏头痛有效。
一些 AED 已用于治疗抑郁和其他心境障碍,包括卡马西平、拉莫三嗪和丙戊酸。在局灶性癫痫伴情绪障碍的患者中,这些药物可供选择。
对特定神经性疼痛有效的 AED(最常见的是痛性糖尿病性神经病)包括加巴喷丁、普瑞巴林、[94]Tassone DM, Boyce E, Guyer J, et al. Pregabalin: a novel gamma-aminobutyric acid analogue in the treatment of neuropathic pain, partial-onset seizures, and anxiety disorders. Clin Ther. 2007 Jan;29(1):26-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17379045?tool=bestpractice.com[95]Delahoy P, Thompson S, Marschner IC. Pregabalin versus gabapentin in partial epilepsy: a meta-analysis of dose-response relationships. BMC Neurol. 2010 Nov 1;10:104.https://bmcneurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2377-10-104http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21040531?tool=bestpractice.com[96]Baulac M, Leon T, O'Brien TJ, et al. A comparison of pregabalin, lamotrigine, and placebo as adjunctive therapy in patients with refractory partial-onset seizures. Epilepsy Res. 2010 Sep;91(1):10-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696552?tool=bestpractice.com[97]Kwan P, Brodie MJ, Kälviäinen R, et al. Efficacy and safety of pregabalin versus lamotrigine in patients with newly diagnosed partial seizures: a phase 3, double-blind, randomised, parallel-group trial. Lancet Neurol. 2011 Oct;10(10):881-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21889410?tool=bestpractice.com 卡马西平和奥卡西平。加巴喷丁和普瑞巴林常用于多药治疗。
与体重增加有关的 AED,包括:丙戊酸、加巴喷丁和普瑞巴林,应避免在肥胖患者中使用。与体重下降有关的 AED 包括托吡酯和唑尼沙胺。多数情况下,认为其他 AED 不影响体重。
对于有潜在肝脏疾病或其他共病、需要多药物治疗(包括 P450 酶诱导剂)的患者,可考虑首选以下 AED 类药物:左乙拉西坦、拉科酰胺、加巴喷丁和普瑞巴林。这些药物可能有助于将肝脏影响降至最低,减少药物间相互作用的可能。
≥60 岁的成人
老年人的新发癫痫发病率较高。[98]Hauser WA. Epidemiology of seizures in the elderly. In: Rowan AJ, Ramsay RE, eds. Seizures and epilepsy in the elderly. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997:7-20. 60 岁以上患者的年龄相关性生理学改变包括:蛋白结合率下降、低白蛋白、肝容积和血流量下降及肾功能不全。此外,许多 60 岁以上的人群有重要的医学共病,因而会使用多种不同的药物来治疗这些共病。因而,老年患者特别容易出现不良反应,常被耐受性问题困扰,特别是剂量较高或给予多种药物时。所以,应尽可能以低剂量单药治疗老年局灶性癫痫。如果单药治疗无法在老年患者中获得较好的疗效,应寻求专科医师意见。
The decision to treat focal seizures in older people is often made after the first unprovoked seizure, because the likelihood of a recurrence is higher, and the consequences of even a single seizure (falls/hip fracture) may be life changing. First-generation AEDs have a number of pharmacokinetic properties that may make them less desirable choices for the treatment of focal seizures in older people. A number of first-generation AEDs are either P450 enzyme inducers (e.g., phenytoin, carbamazepine) or inhibitors (e.g., valproic acid). [
]How does phenytoin compare with sodium valproate in people with partial onset or generalized onset tonic-clonic seizures?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1455/full显示答案
此外,一些第一代 AED 有着相对较高的蛋白结合率,使其更可能在结合部位被取代,增加其毒副反应。老年患者的 AED 吸收率可能不稳定,可能引起毒性或发作增加。因而,应以较低的剂量开始治疗,后根据患者反应逐渐加量。此外,应密切监测患者是否有中毒迹象。
很多第二代 AED(拉莫三嗪、左乙拉西坦)有着更为良好的药代动力学特点,使其成为≥60 岁患者更为适合的治疗选择。
虽然认为新型 AED 的不良事件较第一代 AED 更少,但并不总是如此。一项研究证明,在老年人中,非酶诱导剂 AED 与更高的髋骨骨质流失发生率独立相关。[99]Ensrud KE, Walczak TS, Blackwell TL, et al; Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS) Study Research Group. Antiepileptic drug use and rates of hip bone loss in older men: a prospective study. Neurology. 2008 Sep 2;71(10):723-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18765648?tool=bestpractice.com
有关老年人中 AED 用药剂量的信息仍较为有限。[100]Rowan AJ, Ramsay RE, Collins JF, et al. New onset geriatric epilepsy: a randomized study of gabapentin, lamotrigine, and carbamazepine. Neurology. 2005 Jun 14;64(11):1868-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15955935?tool=bestpractice.com[101]Groselj J, Guerrini R, Van Oene J, et al; TOP-INT-51 Investigators' Group. Experience with topiramate monotherapy in elderly patients with recent-onset epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand. 2005 Sep;112(3):144-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16097955?tool=bestpractice.com[102]Alsaadi TM, Koopmans S, Apperson M, et al. Levetiracetam monotherapy for elderly patients with epilepsy. Seizure. 2004 Jan;13(1):58-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14741184?tool=bestpractice.com 2005 年进行的一项关于老年人新发癫痫发作的随机研究显示,接受拉莫三嗪或加巴喷丁治疗患者的保留率高于接受卡马西平治疗的患者。[100]Rowan AJ, Ramsay RE, Collins JF, et al. New onset geriatric epilepsy: a randomized study of gabapentin, lamotrigine, and carbamazepine. Neurology. 2005 Jun 14;64(11):1868-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15955935?tool=bestpractice.com 这多数是基于更好的药物耐受性。在另一项比较拉莫三嗪和卡马西平的研究中,发现了类似的结果。[103]Saetre E, Perucca E, Isojärvi J, et al; LAM 40089 Study Group. An international multicenter randomized double-blind controlled trial of lamotrigine and sustained-release carbamazepine in the treatment of newly diagnosed epilepsy in the elderly. Epilepsia. 2007 Jul;48(7):1292-302.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17561956?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠中局灶性癫痫发作的控制
用于妊娠癫痫女性的最佳 AED 是继续使用未妊娠时的正确用药,并用尽可能低的剂量治疗。[104]American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: management issues for women with epilepsy (summary statement). Neurology. 1998 Oct;51(4):944-8.http://n.neurology.org/content/51/4/944.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9781510?tool=bestpractice.com[105]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Epilepsy in pregnancy (Green-top Guideline No.68). Jun 2016 [internet publication].https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/green-top-guidelines/gtg68_epilepsy.pdf 单药治疗优于多药治疗。不过,避免癫痫发作较 AED 潜在的危险更为重要。具体药物包括卡马西平、奥卡西平、拉莫三嗪和左乙拉西坦。因具有致畸作用,建议避免使用丙戊酸、苯妥英和苯巴比妥。[106]Wyszynski DF, Nambisan M, Surve T, et al; Antiepileptic Drug Pregnancy Registry. Increased rate of major malformations in offspring exposed to valproate during pregnancy. Neurology. 2005 Mar 22;64(6):961-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15781808?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Holmes LB, Wyszynski DF, Lieberman E. The AED (antiepileptic drug) pregnancy registry: a 6-year experience. Arch Neurol. 2004 May;61(5):673-8.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/785808http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15148143?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N, et al; NEAD Study Group. Cognitive function at 3 years of age after fetal exposure to antiepileptic drugs. N Engl J Med. 2009 Apr 16;360(16):1597-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19369666?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Harden CL, Meador KJ, Pennell PB, et al. Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy - focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): teratogenesis and perinatal outcomes. Neurology. 2009 Jul 14;73(2):133-41.http://n.neurology.org/content/73/2/133.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19398681?tool=bestpractice.com认知功能障碍:有适当的证据表明,妊娠期间使用丙戊酸与使用其他抗癫痫药相比,会增加暴露胎儿到 3 岁时发生显著认知障碍的风险。[108]Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N, et al; NEAD Study Group. Cognitive function at 3 years of age after fetal exposure to antiepileptic drugs. N Engl J Med. 2009 Apr 16;360(16):1597-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19369666?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 2018 年,欧洲药品管理局 (EMA) 最终完成了对丙戊酸及其类似物的审查,并建议在妊娠期禁止将这些药物用于癫痫发作,因为胎儿/儿童先天畸形和出现发育问题的风险高。然而,对于一些可能无法停用丙戊酸的女性癫痫患者来说,可能需要配合适当的专科护理继续癫痫治疗。[110]European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Mar 2018 [internet publication].http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Referrals_document/Valproate_2017_31/Position_provided_by_CMDh/WC500246350.pdf 在美国,标准做法是只在其他替代药物无法接受或无效时,才将丙戊酸及其类似物用于治疗妊娠期癫痫发作。如果患者正在服用此药以预防严重癫痫发作并在备孕中,那么应根据个体来决定是继续使用丙戊酸还是替换为替代药物。在欧洲和美国,除非已实施妊娠预防计划并且符合特定的条件,否则丙戊酸及其类似物不得用于具有生育可能的女性患者。[110]European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Mar 2018 [internet publication].http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Referrals_document/Valproate_2017_31/Position_provided_by_CMDh/WC500246350.pdf
女性癫痫患者应接受优生咨询,且应警告用药患者,部分 AED 会与避孕药发生相互作用,增加避孕失败率。这在使用 P450 酶诱导 AED(例如,苯妥英和卡马西平)时尤其重要。此外,怀孕前,女性癫痫患者应补充叶酸,且应在整个妊娠过程中持续补充,以降低胎儿发生神经管缺陷的风险。[111]Harden CL, Pennell PB, Koppel BS, et al; American Academy of Neurology; American Epilepsy Society. Practice parameter update: management issues for women with epilepsy - focus on pregnancy (an evidence-based review): vitamin K, folic acid, blood levels, and breastfeeding. Neurology. 2009 Jul 14;73(2):142-9.http://n.neurology.org/content/73/2/142.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19398680?tool=bestpractice.com[112]Longo B, Forinash AB, Murphy JA. Levetiracetam use in pregnancy. Ann Pharmacother. 2009 Oct;43(10):1692-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19690219?tool=bestpractice.com 不过,2009 年的一项关于妊娠女性癫痫患者的研究并未证明孕前补充叶酸在预防神经管缺陷方面具有有益作用。因此,研究表明,叶酸在普通人群妊娠女性中的益处并未延伸至女性癫痫患者。[113]Morrow JI, Hunt SJ, Russell AJ, et al. Folic acid use and major congenital malformations in offspring of women with epilepsy: a prospective study from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009 May;80(5):506-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18977812?tool=bestpractice.com 但因补充叶酸的负作用很小,且是一项常规建议,因此,女性癫痫患者仍应该补充叶酸。
怀孕时,女性癫痫患者应接受高危产科专家的诊疗。测定 AED 水平可有辅助作用,因为此水平会在整个妊娠过程中不断变化。应在妊娠第 14-18 周进行婴儿解剖学超声检查,并测定血清甲胎蛋白水平。根据个体病例情况确定是否需要行羊膜腔穿刺术。
儿童
最初应由一名小儿神经科专科医师负责治疗。目前已经制定了癫痫发作的急性期治疗指南,并且指南内容在很大程度上与病因无关,但绝不应忽视低血糖的问题。[114]New South Wales Ministry of Health. Infants and children: acute management of seizures. Feb 2016 [internet publication].http://www1.health.nsw.gov.au/pds/ActivePDSDocuments/GL2016_005.pdf 一旦确诊有局灶性癫痫发作,病因确定往往非常重要,这对儿童的长期治疗决策非常关键。例如,一些特定的综合征,例如伴中央颞叶棘波的儿童良性癫痫,是部位相关/特发性癫痫的亚型,有少量癫痫发作,且与年龄有关,常是自限性。基于此,有人提出不必实行 AED 治疗。[115]Ambrosetto G, Tassinari CA. Antiepileptic drug treatment of benign childhood epilepsy with rolandic spikes: is it necessary? Epilepsia. 1990 Nov-Dec;31(6):802-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2123157?tool=bestpractice.com
在一些病例中(例如,癫痫发作不频繁),可仅在某些长时间癫痫发作时,父母给予患儿一种急性期、中止治疗的方法进行治疗,例如,直肠地西泮用药。对部位相关/症状性癫痫(病因为畸形及其他病变)而言,局灶性癫痫发作常难以控制。该类情况下,常实行早期 AED 治疗,且常使用多药治疗。
在儿童选择 AED 时,应考虑对认知、学习和行为影响。基于此,应避免使用苯巴比妥和苯妥英等 AED 进行长期治疗(作为三线治疗药物)。就认知不良反应而言,选择奥卡西平和拉莫三嗪可能更有利。另外需考虑药代动力学差异。在 AED 的代谢过程中,幼儿常具有更快的清除率和差异性,在制定用药方案中需考虑此特点。
一项 Cochrane 评价支持将卡马西平和拉莫三嗪用作局灶性起源的癫痫发作患儿的一线治疗药物,如果卡马西平和拉莫三嗪不适合或不耐受,左乙拉西坦则是一种合适的替代药物。[63]Nevitt SJ, Sudell M, Weston J, et al. Antiepileptic drug monotherapy for epilepsy: a network meta-analysis of individual participant data. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Dec 15;(12):CD011412.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011412.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29243813?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do antiepileptic drugs compare for people with focal epilepsy?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1802/full显示答案
美国食品药品监督管理局 (FDA) 已批准将氨己烯酸 (vigabatrin) 作为辅助治疗用于 10 岁及以上对其他治疗反应不佳的儿童患者的难治性复杂性局灶性癫痫发作,并且可能的益处需超过视力丧失的风险。欧洲药品管理局 (EMA) 已批准将拉科酰胺用作 4 岁及以上儿童癫痫患者的局灶发作性癫痫(伴或不伴继发性全身性癫痫发作)的单药治疗和辅助治疗。
AED 治疗的局限性
治疗依从性仍是许多患者面临的一个挑战。癫痫发作次数相对较少的患者在药物漏服时可能没有发现明显的影响。不过,随着时间的推移,偶尔药物漏服可能引起反复的癫痫发作。一些患者会因 AED 的不良反应而依从性差,特别是嗜睡和恶心。另一些人会有记忆问题,无法遵循用药方案。一些患者无法承担自己的用药费用,可能出现用药剂量不足。此外,另一些人可能只是不喜欢服药,或者可能害怕所有用药,这更加导致依从性较差和癫痫控制不良。
由于许多患者可能需要持续治疗,AED 的长期不良反应就需要重点考虑。其中包括骨质流失可能性,特别是使用 P450 酶诱导 AED 时(例如,苯妥英和卡马西平)。[116]Souverein PC, Webb DJ, Weil JG, et al. Use of antiepileptic drugs and risk of fractures: case-control study among patients with epilepsy. Neurology. 2006 May 9;66(9):1318-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16682661?tool=bestpractice.com
辅助治疗选择
在任何治疗阶段,避免睡眠剥夺、酒精和过度应激均可能成为 AED 有益的辅助治疗手段,但无法代替药物治疗。
难治性癫痫
在成人和儿童中,至少 2 种 AED 联用失败时应重新评估诊断。如果诊断有疑问,则重新检查,可以使用远程视频/EEG 监测。若局灶性癫痫的诊断明确,但患者对 AED 治疗无反应,应考虑实行癫痫手术并进行相关检查和评估。
拟行癫痫手术的患者包括:脑 MRI 显示病灶的患者,或通过包括 EEG 在内的多种检查显示致癫痫病灶局限于某个脑区的患者。一项研究证明,58% 因颞叶癫痫实行颞叶切除术的患者实现了无癫痫发作,相比之下,需继续药物治疗的患者比例仅为 8%。[117]Wiebe S, Warren T, Blume JP, et al; Effectiveness and Efficiency of Surgery for Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Study Group. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med. 2001 Aug 2;345(5):311-8.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200108023450501#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11484687?tool=bestpractice.com 如果患者存在超过一个以上的癫痫病灶,则可以考虑植入迷走神经刺激器代替手术。[118]Englot DJ, Chang EF, Auguste KI. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a meta-analysis of efficacy and predictors of response. J Neurosurg. 2011 Dec;115(6):1248-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21838505?tool=bestpractice.com[119]Panebianco M, Rigby A, Weston J, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for partial seizures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Apr 3;(4):CD002896.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002896.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25835947?tool=bestpractice.com [
]In people with drug-resistant partial seizures, how does vagus nerve stimulation using high stimulation compare with low stimulation at improving outcomes?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.781/full显示答案
脑深部电刺激也可能有效。[120]Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T, et al. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2010 May;51(5):899-908.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02536.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20331461?tool=bestpractice.com 最后,感应式神经刺激系统(RNS,包括颅内植入式神经刺激器)可能适用于一些癫痫病灶无法切除的药物难治性患者。[121]US Food and Drug Administration. RNS® System - P100026. Jan 2015 [internet publication].http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170112091430/http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/DeviceApprovalsandClearances/Recently-ApprovedDevices/ucm376685.htm[122]Bergey GK, Morrell MJ, Mizrahi EM, et al. Long-term treatment with responsive brain stimulation in adults with refractory partial seizures. Neurology. 2015 Feb 24;84(8):810-7.http://n.neurology.org/content/84/8/810.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25616485?tool=bestpractice.com[123]Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD, et al. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia. 2014 Mar;55(3):432-41.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/epi.12534http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24621228?tool=bestpractice.com[124]Morrell MJ; RNS System in Epilepsy Study Group. Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of medically intractable partial epilepsy. Neurology. 2011 Sep 27;77(13):1295-304.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21917777?tool=bestpractice.com 仅在癫痫专科中心方可获得这些先进的治疗选择。
儿童(不用于≥60 岁的成人)的另一主要选择(但不是唯一的选择)是生酮饮食。生酮饮食为高脂肪、低碳水化合物饮食,已经证实会降低癫痫发作频率。[125]Freeman JM, Kossoff EH, Freeman JB, et al. The ketogenic diet: a treatment for children and others with epilepsy. New York, NY: Demos Medical Publishing; 2006.[126]Martin K, Jackson CF, Levy RG, et al. Ketogenic diet and other dietary treatments for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Feb 9;(2):CD001903.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001903.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26859528?tool=bestpractice.com 它必须在住院、有密切的医学监护的条件下进行,需监测有无代谢性酸中毒和肾结石。