识别导致心脏结构性或功能性异常的疾病很重要,因为导致左心室功能不全的某些疾病是可能治愈或可逆的。[2]Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, et al. 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA guidelines for the diagnosis and management of heart failure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation. 2009;119:1997-2016.http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/119/14/1977http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19324967?tool=bestpractice.com积极查明病因常常要检测可能造成或加剧症状严重程度的并存疾病。但是,对于许多有此综合症状的患者来说,可能无法识别心力衰竭的原因。对其他患者来说,潜在的疾病可能无法治疗。
患者特征
心力衰竭是老年人的一个主要疾病。65岁以上人口心力衰竭的发病率接近10‰,住院患者中约80%患者的年龄在65岁以上。[2]Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, et al. 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA guidelines for the diagnosis and management of heart failure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation. 2009;119:1997-2016.http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/119/14/1977http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19324967?tool=bestpractice.com研究一致认为,年龄越大,发生心力衰竭的风险越高。[3]McKee PA, Castelli WP, McNamara PM, et al. The natural history of congestive heart failure: the Framingham study. N Engl J Med. 1971;285:1441-1446.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5122894?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Remes J, Reunanen A, Aromaa A, et al. Incidence of heart failure in eastern Finland: a population-based surveillance study. Eur Heart J. 1992;13:588-593.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1618198?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Ho KK, Pinsky JL, Kannel WB, et al. The epidemiology of heart failure: the Framingham Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22:6A-13A.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8376698?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Senni M, Tribouilloy CM, Rodeheffer RJ, et al. Congestive heart failure in the community: a study of all incident cases in Olmsted County, Minnesota, in 1991. Circulation. 1998;98:2282-2289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9826315?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Chae CU, Pfeffer MA, Glynn RJ, et al. Increased pulse pressure and risk of heart failure in the elderly. JAMA. 1999;281:634-639.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10029125?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Chen YT, Vaccarino V, Williams CS, et al. Risk factors for heart failure in the elderly: a prospective community-based study. Am J Med. 1999;106:605-612.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10378616?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Gottdiener JS, Arnold AM, Aurigemma GP, et al. Predictors of congestive heart failure in the elderly: the Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:1628-1637.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10807470?tool=bestpractice.com男性发生心力衰竭的风险较高。[3]McKee PA, Castelli WP, McNamara PM, et al. The natural history of congestive heart failure: the Framingham study. N Engl J Med. 1971;285:1441-1446.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5122894?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Remes J, Reunanen A, Aromaa A, et al. Incidence of heart failure in eastern Finland: a population-based surveillance study. Eur Heart J. 1992;13:588-593.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1618198?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Ho KK, Pinsky JL, Kannel WB, et al. The epidemiology of heart failure: the Framingham Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22:6A-13A.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8376698?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Senni M, Tribouilloy CM, Rodeheffer RJ, et al. Congestive heart failure in the community: a study of all incident cases in Olmsted County, Minnesota, in 1991. Circulation. 1998;98:2282-2289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9826315?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Chae CU, Pfeffer MA, Glynn RJ, et al. Increased pulse pressure and risk of heart failure in the elderly. JAMA. 1999;281:634-639.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10029125?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Chen YT, Vaccarino V, Williams CS, et al. Risk factors for heart failure in the elderly: a prospective community-based study. Am J Med. 1999;106:605-612.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10378616?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Kimmelstiel CD, Konstam MA. Heart failure in women. Cardiology. 1995;86:304-309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7553705?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Gottdiener JS, Arnold AM, Aurigemma GP, et al. Predictors of congestive heart failure in the elderly: the Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;35:1628-1637.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10807470?tool=bestpractice.com体重超重是一个确定的危险因素。[46]Kenchaiah S, Evans JC, Levy D, et al. Obesity and the risk of heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:305-313.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12151467?tool=bestpractice.com
许多诱发因素可导致心脏功能受损,可能导致急性心力衰竭发作。诱发因素的识别和治疗在患者管理中发挥着重要作用,这些诱发因素包括盐摄入过多、缺乏依从性(在药物治疗和饮食方面)、心肌梗死、肺栓塞、未控制的高血压、心律失常、感染、甲状腺功能低下、甲状腺功能亢进、肾功能不全以及酗酒和药物滥用。[1]Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, et al. 2016 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur J Heart Fail. 2016;18:891-975.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejhf.592/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27207191?tool=bestpractice.com[68]McMurray JJV, Adamopoulos S, Anker SD, et al. ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure 2012 of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:1787-1847.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/14/1787.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22611136?tool=bestpractice.com
患者病史
潜在致病因素的复杂性和多样性是指患者病史中的诸多因素之间可能具有相关性。问诊应包括以下病史:高血压、糖尿病、血脂异常、吸烟情况、冠状动脉、心瓣膜病或外周血管病、风湿热、心脏杂音或先天性心脏病、肌病的个人史或家族史、纵隔照射和睡眠呼吸暂停。药物史中应记录过去或现在违禁药物的使用情况、酒精、麻黄或抗肿瘤剂例如蒽环类药物、曲妥单抗或大剂量环磷酰胺的使用情况,因为心力衰竭可能在服用阿霉素或环磷酰胺后多年才会发生。病史和体格检查中应特别考虑非心脏疾病例如胶原血管病、细菌或寄生虫感染、肥胖、甲状腺激素过多或不足、淀粉样变性和嗜铬细胞瘤等。
应详细了解患者家族史,不仅要确定是否有家族性动脉粥样硬化性疾病倾向,而且还需识别是否有患心肌病、原因不明猝死、传导系统异常和骨骼肌病的亲属。
劳力性或静息性呼吸困难是左心衰竭最常见的症状。随着心力衰竭的程度不断加重,患者可能会发生下肢浮肿和因腹水引起的腹胀。
体格检查
要尤其重视心力衰竭的核心症状和体征。这些症状和体征的存在(及其程度)取决于心力衰竭的严重程度和相关的共病。
常规检查可发现心动过速和发绀。心血管针对性检查可发现颈静脉压升高、踝部水肿和心尖搏动移位,提示心脏肥大。听诊发现,除了有肺部啰音或捻发音,还可能存在第三心音奔马律,后者具有预后意义。
特别要注意一些因素,例如面色苍白(可能反映贫血)、不规则脉搏(反映房颤)、主动脉瓣狭窄的收缩期杂音和二尖瓣狭窄的舒张中期杂音或甲状腺毒症的明显体征。在血液透析患者中,大型动静脉瘘有时可能会成为诱发因素。
检查
所有患者的初始检查应包括心电图、胸部X线、经胸超声心动图以及基线血液学和血液生化检查,包括全血细胞计数、血清电解质(包括钙和镁)、血清尿素和肌酐、肝功能和B型利钠肽(BNP)/N-末端脑钠肽(NT-pro-BNP),血糖、甲状腺功能和血脂对于评估常见的相关共病很有帮助。
随后的进一步检查有助于评估心力衰竭的严重程度和功能状态,包括标准的运动负荷试验(踏车或平板)、测试最大摄氧量的心肺运动试验(CPX)、6分钟步行试验、右心导管术和心内膜心肌活检。根据临床病史,也可以进行HIV筛选、铁含量和空腹转铁蛋白饱和度测定以筛选血色病。心脏核磁共振检查在诊断心肌炎和浸润性心肌病方面具有重要作用。