所有慢性肾脏病的病因都是进展性的。治疗的主要目标是延缓肾功能的进展性丧失,并预防对肾脏替代治疗或肾移植的需要。治疗中最重要的因素是在患者处于病程早期时及时识别,并进行 CKD 分期(1~5 期),这样便有时机进行危险因素的纠正,也可以使贫血或继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进等并发症能得以早期治疗。
根据肾小球滤过率 (GFR),可将 CKD 分为如下 6 个不同分期:[1]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013 Jan;3(1):1-150.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/pdf/CKD/KDIGO_2012_CKD_GL.pdf
1 期:GFR>90 mL/min/1.73 m²,有肾脏损伤证据,可基于病理诊断、影像学异常或实验室检查异常,例如血尿和/或蛋白尿
2 期:GFR 为 60-89 mL/min/1.73 m²
3a 期:GFR 为 45-59 mL/min/1.73 m²
3b 期:GFR 为 30-44 mL/min/1.73 m²
4 期:GFR 15-29 mL/min/1.73 m²
5 期:GFR <15 mL/min/1.73 m²
1~4 期一线治疗
CKD 患者的主要死亡原因是心血管疾病。因此推荐针对心血管危险因素进行治疗,例如优化血糖控制,使用血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂 (ACEI) 或血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂优化血压控制,应用降脂药物(例如,他汀类药物、依折麦布),[37]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for lipid management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013 Nov;3(3):259-303.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/Lipids/KDIGO%20Lipid%20Management%20Guideline%202013.pdf[38]Baigent C, Landray MJ, Reith C, et al. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2011 Jun 25;377(9784):2181-92.https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)60739-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21663949?tool=bestpractice.com 以及减轻蛋白尿。[39]Fink HA, Ishani A, Taylor BC, et al. Screening for, monitoring, and treatment of chronic kidney disease stages 1 to 3: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and for an American College of Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Apr 17;156(8):570-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22508734?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Fox CS, Matsushita K, Woodward M, et al; Chronic Kidney Disease Prognosis Consortium. Associations of kidney disease measures with mortality and end-stage renal disease in individuals with and without diabetes: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2012 Nov 10;380(9854):1662-73.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3771350/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23013602?tool=bestpractice.com
无论病因如何,高血压均是CKD进展的最大危险因素之一。大部分 CKD 患者需要至少 2 或 3 种不同类型降压药物才能达到最佳血压控制。第八届全国联合委员会 (Joint National Committee, JNC) 将 CKD 患者的血压靶目标重新定义为<140/90 mmHg,因为一些临床试验的结果证实,这一血压范围与最低风险的心血管结局和死亡相关。[36]James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014 Feb 5;311(5):507-20.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1791497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352797?tool=bestpractice.com 在终末期肾病 (ESRD) 发生和死亡之前,严格的血压控制也可能有益;然而,需要进一步调查这些患者的最佳血压目标。[36]James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014 Feb 5;311(5):507-20.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1791497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352797?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Ku E, Glidden DV, Johansen KL, et al. Association between strict blood pressure control during chronic kidney disease and lower mortality after onset of end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 2015 May;87(5):1055-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25493952?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Casas J, Chua W, Loukogoergakis S, et al. Effect of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system and other antihypertensive drugs on renal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2005 Dec 10;366(9502):2026-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16338452?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Hermida RC, Ayala DE, Mojón A, et al. Bedtime dosing of antihypertensive medications reduces cardiovascular risk in CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011 Dec;22(12):2313-21.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/22/12/2313.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22025630?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Sinha AD, Agarwal R. ACP Journal Club. Use of >= 1 antihypertensive drug at bedtime reduced CV events more than use of all drugs in the morning in CKD. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Jun 19;156(12):JC6-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22711109?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Upadhyay A, Earley A, Haynes SM, et al. Systematic review: blood pressure target in chronic kidney disease and proteinuria as an effect modifier. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Apr 19;154(8):541-8.http://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/746936/systematic-review-blood-pressure-target-chronic-kidney-disease-proteinuria-effecthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21403055?tool=bestpractice.com[46]Weir MR, Bakris GL, Weber MA, et al. Renal outcomes in hypertensive Black patients at high cardiovascular risk. Kidney Int. 2012 Mar;81(6):568-76.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22189843?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Tsai WC, Wu HY, Peng YS, et al. Association of intensive blood pressure control and kidney disease progression in nondiabetic patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2017 Jun 1;177(6):792-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28288249?tool=bestpractice.com 如果发现一名患者的蛋白尿>3 g/日,根据肾脏病膳食改良 (MDRD) 研究的结果,如果目标血压降低至<130/80 mmHg,则可能有益于肾脏结局。[48]Klahr S, Levey AS, Beck GJ, et al. The effects of dietary protein restriction and blood-pressure control on the progression of chronic renal disease. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994 Mar 31;330(13):877-84.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199403313301301http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8114857?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,在关于 CKD 的其他血压试验中,尚未对此进行验证。应联合使用降压药物来实现血压控制目标(但不应在同一方案内联合使用 ACEI 和血管紧张素 II 受体拮抗剂)。
血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂疾病进展、死亡率、以及心血管事件:有中等质量的证据表明,ACEI 类药物相较于对照组药物,在 CKD 患者中具有更好的降压效果。[49]Clase C. Renal failure (chronic). BMJ Clin Evid. 2011 May 25;2011:2004.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3217810/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21609509?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 以及血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂在许多临床试验中都已被证明,无论在糖尿病性或非糖尿病性 CKD 患者中都能延缓 CKD 的进展并延缓肾脏替代治疗。[50]Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):851-60.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa011303http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11565517?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, et al; RENAAL Study Investigators. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):861-9.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa011161http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11565518?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Wright JT Jr, Bakris G, Greene T, et al; African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension Study Group. Effect of blood pressure lowering and antihypertensive drug class on progression of hypertensive kidney disease: results from the AASK trial. JAMA. 2002 Nov 20;288(19):2421-31.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/195530http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12435255?tool=bestpractice.com疾病进展及终末期肾脏病:有低质量的证据表明,在慢性肾衰竭患者中,ACEI 类药物相比于对照组能够更有效地降低疾病进展和 ESRD 的风险。有质量极低的证据显示,尚不清楚在慢性肾衰竭患者中ACEI类药物是否能够更有效地降低死亡率。[49]Clase C. Renal failure (chronic). BMJ Clin Evid. 2011 May 25;2011:2004.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3217810/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21609509?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 在一份有关 CKD 患者的 meta 分析中,与安慰剂组或使用其他降压药的对照组相比,使用 ACEI 或血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂等药物阻断肾素血管紧张素系统,能降低心肌梗死、充血性心力衰竭以及全因心血管结局的风险,强调了这些药物在 CKD 治疗当中的一线地位。[53]Balamuthusamy S, Srinivasam L, Verma M, et al. Renin angiotensin system blockade and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease and proteinuria: a meta-analysis. Am Heart J. 2008 May;155(5):791-805.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18440325?tool=bestpractice.com
尽管之前普遍认为使用 ACEI 联合血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂或肾素抑制剂能够延缓 CKD 的进展,但临床试验的结果并未证实这种猜想。在 ONTARGET 试验中,受试者被分配到替米沙坦组、雷米普利组或联合治疗组,以此来验证联合用药对于心脏和肾脏结局的影响。[54]Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al; ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008 Apr 10;358(15):1547-59.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0801317http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18378520?tool=bestpractice.com 这项研究得出的结论为,在治疗组中心血管原因导致的死亡、心肌梗死、脑血管意外或因充血性心力衰竭而入院的事件并无差异。此外,首次透析时间、死亡或血清肌酐加倍为指标的肾脏不良结局在联合治疗组中相较于单药治疗组发生率更高。因此,目前尚无临床证据支持在 CKD 患者人群中使用这种联合用药,并且由于高钾血症和急性肾损伤的风险升高,因此不应推荐这种治疗。尽管不推荐用于 CKD,但血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂与血管紧张素 II 受体拮抗剂联合治疗有时可用于肾病综合征和肾小球肾炎患者,以减轻蛋白尿。
如果不能通过这些一线药物来实现目标血压,则其他类型的降压药物(例如噻嗪类利尿剂、β 受体阻滞剂等)可与血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂或血管紧张素 II 受体拮抗剂联合使用。直到最近,阿利吉仑仍然被推荐与血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂或血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂联合使用;然而,由于 ALTITUDE 试验的结果及随后试验的提前终止,制药商在 2011 年 12 月建议医生不要再将这两类药物与含有阿利吉仑的产品配伍使用。[55]Parving HH, Brenner BM, McMurray JJ, et al; ALTITUDE Investigators. Cardiorenal end points in a trial of aliskiren for type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012 Dec 6;367(23):2204-13.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1208799http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23121378?tool=bestpractice.com 这项试验评估了在存在心血管及肾脏事件高风险的 2 型糖尿病患者中,阿利吉仑与 ACEI 或血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂联合使用的疗效,该试验发现,在服药 18-24 个月后的患者中,发生非致命性卒中、肾脏并发症、高钾血症及低血压的风险升高。美国食品药品监督管理局 (FDA) 目前推荐,在糖尿病患者中,禁忌联合使用阿利吉仑与 ACEI 或血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂,因其具有肾脏损伤、低血压及高钾血症的风险。FDA 还建议,中重度肾脏损伤患者(即 GFR<60 mL/min/1.73 m²)也应避免联合使用上述药物。
血脂异常在 CKD 患者中常见。虽然已推荐适合 CKD 患者的胆固醇和低密度脂蛋白 (LDL) 的具体治疗目标,但这种“达标治疗”方法在临床试验中尚未完全确立。因此,改善全球肾病预后组织 (Improving Global Outcomes, KDIGO) 指南推荐,未接受透析的 CKD 患者开始应使用他汀类药物进行治疗,而无需通过常规随访来检查脂质值或根据设定的目标改变治疗方案(即“治疗和遗忘”方法)。[37]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for lipid management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013 Nov;3(3):259-303.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/Lipids/KDIGO%20Lipid%20Management%20Guideline%202013.pdf 对于年龄≥50 岁且 CKD 为 3 期或 4 期的患者,依折麦布可以与他汀类药物辛伐他汀联合使用。[38]Baigent C, Landray MJ, Reith C, et al. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2011 Jun 25;377(9784):2181-92.https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(11)60739-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21663949?tool=bestpractice.com 他汀类药物已被证实在 CKD 患者中具有心脏保护作用。[56]Navaneethan SD, Hegbrant J, Strippoli GF. Role of statins in preventing adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2011 Mar;20(2):146-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21245764?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Jablonski KL, Chonchol M. Cardiovascular disease: should statin therapy be expanded in patients with CKD? Nat Rev Nephrol. 2012 Jul 3;8(8):440-1.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22751508?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Palmer SC, Craig JC, Navaneethan SD, et al. Benefits and harms of statin therapy for persons with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Aug 21;157(4):263-75.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3955032/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22910937?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Upadhyay A, Earley A, Lamont JL, et al. Lipid-lowering therapy in persons with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2012 Aug 21;157(4):251-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22910936?tool=bestpractice.com 一项大型 meta 分析结果显示,对于未透析治疗的患者,使用他汀类药物可将全因死亡率降低 21%(相对风险 [RR] 为 0.79,95% 置信区间为 0.69-0.91),并使心血管死亡率降低 23%(RR 为 0.77,95% 置信区间为 0.69-0.87)。[60]Palmer SC, Navaneethan SD, Craig JC, et al. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for people with chronic kidney disease not requiring dialysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 May 31;(5):CD007784.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007784.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24880031?tool=bestpractice.com 值得注意的是他汀组相对于安慰剂组,不良反应的发生率并无差异。尽管之前有证据表明他汀类药物可能通过肾脏内的抗炎症反应作用而发挥肾脏保护作用,但这些试验中的他汀类虽然可降低蛋白尿,但总体上并未改善肾脏功能。不幸的是,CKD 人群中他汀类的有益作用在透析人群中并未出现。无论在单独的研究中,还是一项新近的 meta 分析中,透析人群应用他汀类药物并不能降低全因死亡率或心血管死亡率。[61]Palmer SC, Navaneethan SD, Craig JC, et al. HMG CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) for dialysis patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Sep 11;(9):CD004289.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004289.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24022428?tool=bestpractice.com
不能耐受一线治疗的 1~4 期患者
若患者不能耐受 ACEI 和血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂,则需更换其他药物。非二氢吡啶类钙离子通道阻滞剂已被证实较其他降压药物有更强的降尿蛋白的效果。在糖尿病性和非糖尿病性 CKD 的临床试验中都已证实其相较于其他抗高血压药物具有更强的降尿蛋白效果。[62]Bakris GL, Weir MR, Secic M, et al. Differential effects of calcium antagonist subclasses on markers of nephropathy progression. Kidney Int. 2004 Jun;65(6):1991-2002.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15149313?tool=bestpractice.com疾病进展:有中等质量的证据表明,在延缓慢性肾病患者的疾病进展方面,血管紧张素 Ⅱ 受体拮抗剂与钙通道阻滞剂的效果相近。[63]Segura J, García-Donaire JA, Ruilope LM. Calcium channel blockers and renal protection: insights from the latest clinical trials. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005 Mar;16 Suppl 1:S64-6.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/16/3_suppl_1/S64.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15938037?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
2 期
治疗原则是持续纠正心血管危险因素,同时评估肾功能丧失的速度,以估计最终进行肾脏替代治疗的需求(例如透析、移植)。
3a/3b 期
推荐确定并发症的存在,如贫血或继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进,如有必要可开始治疗。
在排除铁、维生素B12、叶酸或失血等其他贫血原因后,推荐应用促红细胞生成素类药物纠正贫血。 [
]How does two-weekly administration of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents compare with weekly and monthly administration for people with anemia due to chronic kidney disease who are not on dialysis?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1679/full显示答案 [
]How does recombinant human erythropoietin compare with placebo/no treatment in people with anemia of chronic kidney disease who do not require dialysis?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1224/full显示答案 [
]How do newer continuous erythropoiesis receptor activators compare with older erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in people with anemia of chronic kidney disease?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1866/full显示答案 CKD 患者经常伴有铁缺乏,因此应考虑将铁达标作为治疗目标之一。
若血红蛋白降低至<100 g/L (<10 g/dL) 且患者有贫血的症状和体征时,可开始促红细胞生成素治疗。CKD 患者接受促红细胞生成素治疗的目标血红蛋白水平在最近几年有所改变,但临床专家共识推荐维持血红蛋白在 100~110 g/L (10~11 g/dL) 是较为合适的,因为在这一群体中,血红蛋白若达到正常值将会增加死亡和心血管疾病的风险。[64]Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, et al. Correction of anemia with epoetin alfa in chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2006 Nov 16;355(20):2085-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17108343?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Drüeke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, et al; CREATE Investigators. Normalization of hemoglobin level in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia. N Engl J Med. 2006 Nov 16;355(20):2071-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17108342?tool=bestpractice.com 在关于伴 CKD 和贫血的糖尿病患者的 TREAT 研究中,相较于安慰剂组(患者在血红蛋白降至<90g/L [<9 g/dL] 时接受一次挽救剂量的药物),促红细胞生成素达依泊汀 (darbepoetin) 治疗组在心血管事件、死亡或终末期肾病 (ESRD) 方面并未显示出积极治疗的有益作用。有趣的是,与其他关于 CKD 贫血治疗的研究类似,TREAT 研究者们发现积极治疗组罹患中风的风险有所升高(相对危险度 1.92,95% 可信区间 1.38~2.68)。 [
]What are the effects of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents for anemia in adults with chronic kidney disease?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1294/full显示答案 在他们看来治疗的风险超过了获益,因此治疗开始前医师有必要与患者对此进行讨论。[66]Pfeffer MA, Burdmann EA, Chen CY, et al. A trial of darbepoetin alfa in type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2009 Nov 19;361(21):2019-32.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19880844?tool=bestpractice.com[67]KDIGO Anemia Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for anemia in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2012 Aug;2(4):279-335.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/pdf/KDIGO-Anemia%20GL.pdf[68]Koulouridis I, Alfayez M, Trikalinos TA, et al. Dose of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents and adverse outcomes in CKD: a metaregression analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013 Jan;61(1):44-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22921639?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Wilhelm-Leen ER, Winkelmayer WC. Mortality risk of darbepoetin alfa versus epoetin alfa in patients with CKD: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015 Jul;66(1):69-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25636816?tool=bestpractice.com 所有患者在进行促红细胞生成素治疗前都应接受铁储备的评估。未透析患者的铁蛋白目标值是>100 ng/mL,透析患者的铁蛋白目标值是<200 ng/mL。所有患者的转铁蛋白饱和度都应>20%。可通过口服或胃肠外途径来补充铁剂。
对于继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进症者,应每 6~12 个月进行一次钙、磷和全段甲状旁腺激素 (PTH) 测定。钙和磷的水平应通过饮食限制和/或磷结合剂控制在正常范围内。最佳的 PTH 水平目前仍未知。应排除可能伴发的 25-羟维生素 D 缺乏,例如其值<75 nmol/L (<30 ng/mL) 时,应给予 25-二羟基维生素 D。对处于 CKD 3-5 期的透析患者来说,不常规推荐使用活性维生素 D 类似物,因存在高钙血症的风险,且缺乏可改善临床相关结局的证据。[70]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO 2017 clinical practice guideline update for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2017 Jul;7(1):1-59.https://kdigo.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/2017-KDIGO-CKD-MBD-GL-Update.pdf对于无需透析的 CKD 患者,若甲状旁腺功能亢进症为渐进性或较严重,则需使用维生素 D 类似物。[70]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO 2017 clinical practice guideline update for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2017 Jul;7(1):1-59.https://kdigo.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/2017-KDIGO-CKD-MBD-GL-Update.pdf[71]Coyne DW, Goldberg S, Faber M, et al. A randomized multicenter trial of paricalcitol versus calcitriol for secondary hyperparathyroidism in stages 3-4 CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014 Sep 5;9(9):1620-6.http://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/9/9/1620.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24970869?tool=bestpractice.com 越来越多的证据表明,对于 CKD 患者,使用不含钙的磷结合剂,相较于含钙的磷结合剂具有更大的生存优势。[72]Jamal SA, Vandermeer B, Raggi P, et al. Effect of calcium-based versus non-calcium-based phosphate binders on mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2013 Oct 12;382(9900):1268-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23870817?tool=bestpractice.com
4 期
患者需要接受肾脏替代治疗的宣教,包括血液透析、腹膜透析和肾移植。基于患者较偏向的肾脏替代治疗模式,应相应的接受透析通路手术,和/或接受肾移植评估。所有的患者在选择替代治疗模式之前都应接受CKD宣教,以选择合适的治疗方式。在选择透析模式或考虑姑息性治疗的时候,患者的偏好、家庭支持、潜在的合并症、以及透析机构的可及性都应在讨论范围内。所有将要继续进行血液透析的患者都应接受关于静脉保护的宣教,包括尽量限制通路侧手臂的静脉穿刺和建立静脉通路。[73]Association for Vascular Access, American Society of Diagnostic and Interventional Nephrology. Preservation of peripheral veins in patients with chronic kidney disease. Mar 2011 [internet publication].https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.avainfo.org/resource/resmgr/Files/Position_Statements/Preservation_of_Peripheral_V.pdf 肾移植的指征:eGFR<20 mL/min,患者已接受评估,以及已通过移植团队的必要检测。
贫血和继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进的治疗应继续进行。建议每 3-6 个月复查一次血钙和血磷,每 6-12 个月复查全段 PTH。[70]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO 2017 clinical practice guideline update for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2017 Jul;7(1):1-59.https://kdigo.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/2017-KDIGO-CKD-MBD-GL-Update.pdf 此外,对于伴有代谢性酸中毒的患者,口服补充碳酸氢钠使血清碳酸根浓度达到>20 mEq/L 能够延缓 CKD 进展并改善营养指标。口服碳酸氢钠在这些患者中耐受良好。[74]Susantitaphong P, Sewaralthahab K, Balk EM, et al. Short- and long-term effects of alkali therapy in chronic kidney disease: a systematic review. Am J Nephrol. 2012;35(6):540-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22653322?tool=bestpractice.com
5 期以及尿毒症
一旦患者进入 CKD 5 期或有尿毒症症状,如体重减轻、食欲下降、恶心、呕吐、酸中毒、高钾血症或液体超负荷等,即可开始肾脏替代治疗。[1]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013 Jan;3(1):1-150.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/pdf/CKD/KDIGO_2012_CKD_GL.pdf 对处于 CKD 5 期的透析患者,应每 1-3 个月评估血钙和血磷,每 3-6 个月评估 PTH,并根据检测结果,使用磷结合剂、拟钙剂、活性维生素 D 类似物,或者联合使用这些疗法对患者的血钙、血磷和全段 PTH 进行管理。[70]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO 2017 clinical practice guideline update for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2017 Jul;7(1):1-59.https://kdigo.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/2017-KDIGO-CKD-MBD-GL-Update.pdf拟钙剂(例如,西那卡塞、依特卡肽 [etelcalcetide])可对甲状旁腺产生负反馈调节,不会导致血钙升高。[75]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Cinacalcet for the treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with end-stage renal disease on maintenance dialysis therapy. Jan 2007 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA117西那卡塞在 CKD 和继发性甲状旁腺功能亢进患者中可降低 PTH 水平,且透析开始前和开始后均可降低,但可能会导致低钙血症,且该药物的长期获益未知。[76]Chonchol M, Locatelli F, Abboud HE, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to assess the efficacy and safety of cinacalcet HCl in participants with CKD not receiving dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009 Feb;53(2):197-207.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19110359?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Garside R, Pitt M, Anderson R, et al. The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of cinacalcet for secondary hyperparathyroidism in end-stage renal disease patients on dialysis: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2007 May;11(18):iii, xi-xiii, 1-167.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17462168?tool=bestpractice.com [
]In adults with chronic kidney disease and secondary hyperparathyroidism, what are the benefits and harms of cinacalcet?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1024/full显示答案
一旦患者进入需要透析的阶段,除了肾移植以外已经没有其他的医学手段可以维持患者的生命。值得注意的是,对于年龄超过 80 岁的患者,以及有明显并发症(如严重的充血性心力衰竭)的患者,可能对透析耐受性较差,且这些患者经常不能通过移植前评估。对于这些患者,以及对于所有进入 ESRD 的患者,接诊的肾脏科医师都应当与患者进行临终关怀和姑息性治疗的讨论。[78]O'Connor NR, Kumar P. Conservative management of end-stage renal disease without dialysis: a systematic review. J Palliat Med. 2012 Feb;15(2):228-35.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3318255/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22313460?tool=bestpractice.com
对于被视为移植候选人的患者,相较于维持性透析治疗,移植具有显著的生存优势,主要原因是移植可降低心血管死亡的风险。所有依赖透析的患者都有可能潜在地符合肾移植的要求。包括肾脏病医师和移植外科医生的移植中心对患者进行完整的病史采集和评估后,将最终决定患者的状态以及是否符合肾移植的要求。[79]Blake PG, Bargman JM, Brimble KS, et al; Canadian Society of Nephrology Work Group on Adequacy of Peritoneal Dialysis. Clinical practice guidelines and recommendations on peritoneal dialysis adequacy 2011. Perit Dial Int. 2011 Mar-Apr;31(2):218-39.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21427259?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Berdud I, Arenas MD, Bernat A, et al; Grupo de Trabajo de Hemodiálisis Extrahospitalaria (Outpatient Haemodialysis Group). Appendix to dialysis centre guidelines: recommendations for the relationship between outpatient haemodialysis centres and reference hospitals. Opinions from the Outpatient Dialysis Group. Grupo de Trabajo de Hemodiálisis Extrahospitalaria. Nefrologia. 2011;31(6):664-9.http://www.revistanefrologia.com/en-publicacion-nefrologia-articulo-appendix-dialysis-centre-guidelines-recommendations-for-relationship-between-outpatient-haemodialysis-X2013251411000251http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22130281?tool=bestpractice.com
其他措施
虽然 CKD 人群的数据比一般人群的数据更为有限,但推荐戒烟和减轻体重。仅推荐处于疾病 4 期或 5 期的患者进行蛋白质限制,作为一种控制尿毒症的管理策略,以延迟透析的开始时间。严重的蛋白摄入限制可能会引起营养不良并影响预后。[81]Clase CM, Smyth A. Chronic kidney disease: diet. BMJ Clin Evid. 2015 Jun 29;2015:2004.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4484327/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26121377?tool=bestpractice.com 阿司匹林在 CKD 患者当中可作为心血管保护剂而使患者受益,虽然相较于一般人群,CKD 人群使用阿司匹林会增加小出血的风险。