恰加斯病为 21 个拉丁美洲国家的地方流行病(阿根廷、伯利兹城、玻利维亚、巴西、智利、哥伦比亚、哥斯达黎加、厄瓜多尔、萨尔瓦多、法属圭亚那、危地马拉、圭亚那、洪都拉斯、墨西哥、尼加拉瓜、巴拿马、巴拉圭、秘鲁、苏里南、乌拉圭和委内瑞拉),在这些国家中,有 2,500 至 9,000 万人有感染接触史。[31]World Health Organization. Sustaining the drive to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical diseases: second WHO report on neglected tropical diseases. January 2013. http://www.who.int (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/9789241564540/en/[32]Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME, Franco-Paredes C, et al. The neglected tropical diseases of Latin America and the Caribbean: a review of disease burden and distribution and a roadmap for control and elimination. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2:e300.http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0000300http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18820747?tool=bestpractice.com[33]World Health Organization. Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis): fact sheet N°340. March 2016. http://www.who.int (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs340/en/[34]World Health Organization. Chagas disease in Latin America: an epidemiological update based on 2010 estimates. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2015;90:33-43.http://www.who.int/wer/2015/wer9006.pdf?ua=1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25671846?tool=bestpractice.com据估计,世界上有 6 至 7 百万人感染有克氏锥虫(多数在拉丁美洲),[33]World Health Organization. Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis): fact sheet N°340. March 2016. http://www.who.int (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs340/en/[34]World Health Organization. Chagas disease in Latin America: an epidemiological update based on 2010 estimates. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2015;90:33-43.http://www.who.int/wer/2015/wer9006.pdf?ua=1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25671846?tool=bestpractice.com其中包括 300,000 位居住于美国的人。[31]World Health Organization. Sustaining the drive to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical diseases: second WHO report on neglected tropical diseases. January 2013. http://www.who.int (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/9789241564540/en/[34]World Health Organization. Chagas disease in Latin America: an epidemiological update based on 2010 estimates. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2015;90:33-43.http://www.who.int/wer/2015/wer9006.pdf?ua=1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25671846?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Bern C, Montgomery SP. An estimate of the burden of Chagas disease in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:e52-e54.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/5/e52.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640226?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Moncayo A, Silveira AC. Current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges in epidemiology, surveillance and health policy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):17-30.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753454?tool=bestpractice.com[37]TDR. Report of the scientific working group on Chagas disease, 17-20 April 2005 [in Spanish]. Buenos Aires, Argentina; 2007.http://www.who.int/tdr/publications/tdr-research-publications/reporte-enfermedad-chagas/en/index.html[38]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chagas disease in the Americas - 2013. July 2013. http://www.cdc.gov (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/chagas/resources/chagasdiseaseintheamericas.pdf每年新增病例为 30,000 至 40,000 例。[34]World Health Organization. Chagas disease in Latin America: an epidemiological update based on 2010 estimates. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2015;90:33-43.http://www.who.int/wer/2015/wer9006.pdf?ua=1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25671846?tool=bestpractice.com[37]TDR. Report of the scientific working group on Chagas disease, 17-20 April 2005 [in Spanish]. Buenos Aires, Argentina; 2007.http://www.who.int/tdr/publications/tdr-research-publications/reporte-enfermedad-chagas/en/index.html[39]Jannin J, Salvatella R, eds. Estimacion cuantitativa de la enfermedad de Chagas en las Americas. Montevideo, Uruguay: OPS/HDM/CD/425-06; 2006:28.与恰加斯病相关的死亡人数约为 10,000 至 12,500。[34]World Health Organization. Chagas disease in Latin America: an epidemiological update based on 2010 estimates. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2015;90:33-43.http://www.who.int/wer/2015/wer9006.pdf?ua=1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25671846?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Moncayo A, Silveira AC. Current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges in epidemiology, surveillance and health policy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):17-30.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753454?tool=bestpractice.com[37]TDR. Report of the scientific working group on Chagas disease, 17-20 April 2005 [in Spanish]. Buenos Aires, Argentina; 2007.http://www.who.int/tdr/publications/tdr-research-publications/reporte-enfermedad-chagas/en/index.html[39]Jannin J, Salvatella R, eds. Estimacion cuantitativa de la enfermedad de Chagas en las Americas. Montevideo, Uruguay: OPS/HDM/CD/425-06; 2006:28.约有546,000 至 806,000 伤残调整寿命年损失 (DALYs)。[40]Murray CJ, Vos T, Lozano R, et al. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2012;380:2197-2223.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23245608?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Lee BY, Bacon KM, Bottazzi ME, et al. Global economic burden of Chagas disease: a computational simulation model. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:342-348.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3763184/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23395248?tool=bestpractice.com[42]World Health Organization. World health report 2004: changing history. Geneva: WHO; 2004:120-121,126-127.http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf
该病与贫困和较差的居住条件密切相关。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 锥蝽臭虫居住于简陋房屋的墙壁和天花板裂缝和缝隙中。TDR 图像库:WHO,TDR/惠康基金会,ID# 0005367,1992 年 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 巴西东北部(Piauí 州)该病流行区的典型的土坯房屋Alberto Novaes Ramos Jr 医生,2000 年 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 巴西东北部该病流行区正在建设中的土坯房屋Alberto Novaes Ramos Jr 医生,2000 年 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 低质量房屋的举例,即在此类房屋中的栖息者高度暴露于臭虫并可被锥虫感染TDR 图像库:WHO,TDR/惠康基金会,ID# 9905186,1999 年 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 巴西东北部 (Piauí) 疾病流行区;过度的森林砍伐在增加人类与锥蝽的接触中起到了重要作用Alberto Novaes Ramos Jr 医生,2000 年;授权使用 [Citation ends].在多国协同的以减少南锥体、安第斯山、亚马逊和中美洲国家人群的媒介传播和输血传播为目标的项目下,恰加斯病传播率明显减低。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: Rio Grande do Norte State 的恰加斯病教育材料,巴西巴西 Fundacao Nacional da Saúde, coordenadoria do Estado Rio Grande do Norte e Ministério da Saúde do [Citation ends]. 发生于南美大陆的克氏锥虫每年新感染病例已由 1983 年的约 700,000例降至 2000 年的<200,000 例(减少 70%),2006 年的 41,200例(减少 95%)以及 2010 年的 29,925例。[36]Moncayo A, Silveira AC. Current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges in epidemiology, surveillance and health policy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):17-30.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753454?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Dias JC. Elimination of Chagas disease transmission: perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):41-45.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753456?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Yamagata Y, Nakagawa J. Control of Chagas disease. Adv Parasitol. 2006;61:129-165.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16735164?tool=bestpractice.com在许多该疾病流行的国家中,经口传播的现象明显增加。[11]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Carvalho NB. Oral transmission of Chagas disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:845-852.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/6/845.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22238161?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Pereira KS, Schmidt FL, Guaraldo AM, et al. Chagas' disease as a foodborne illness. J Food Prot. 2009;72:441-446.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19350996?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Nóbrega AA, Garcia MH, Tatto E, et al. Oral transmission of Chagas disease by consumption of açaí palm fruit, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:653-655.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/4/08-1450_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19331764?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Dias JC. Elimination of Chagas disease transmission: perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):41-45.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753456?tool=bestpractice.com
该病流行区域人口的迁移使得恰加斯病在该病非流行国家中的流行率增加。[45]Gascon J, Bern C, Pinazo MJ. Chagas disease in Spain, the United States and other non-endemic countries. Acta Trop. 2010;115:22-27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19646412?tool=bestpractice.com[46]Arandes AS, Gutierrez JM, Navarro MV, et al. Prevalence of Chagas disease in the Latin American immigrant population in a primary health centre in Barcelona (Spain). Acta Trop. 2009;112:228-230.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19631185?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Munoz J, Gomez i Prat J, Gallego M, et al. Clinical profile of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in a non-endemic setting: immigration and Chagas disease in Barcelona (Spain). Acta Trop. 2009;111:51-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19426663?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Milei J, Guerri-Guttenberg RA, Grana DR, et al. Prognostic impact of Chagas disease in the United States. Am Heart J. 2009;157:22-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19081392?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Teixeira AR, Nitz N, Guimaro MC, et al. Chagas disease. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82:788-798.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17148699?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Rodriguez-Guardado A, Rodriguez M, Alonso P, et al. Serological screening of Chagas disease in an immigrant population in Asturias, Spain proceeding from Chagas-endemic areas. Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;14:1-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19685377?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Lescure FX, Canestri A, Melliez H, et al. Chagas disease, France. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:644-646.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/14/4/07-0489_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18394284?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Schmunis GA. Epidemiology of Chagas disease in non-endemic countries: the role of international migration. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2007;102(suppl 1):75-85.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762007000900013&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17891282?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Requena-Méndez A, Aldasoro E, de Lazzari E, et al. Prevalence of Chagas disease in Latin-American migrants living in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9:e0003540.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4332678/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25680190?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Strasen J, Williams T, Ertl G, et al. Epidemiology of Chagas disease in Europe: many calculations, little knowledge. Clin Res Cardiol. 2014;103:1-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23989652?tool=bestpractice.com[55]European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Assessing the burden of key infectious diseases affecting migrant populations in the EU/EEA. May 2014. http://ecdc.europa.eu (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/assessing-burden-disease-migrant-populations.pdf[56]Hotez PJ, Dumonteil E, Betancourt Cravioto M, et al. An unfolding tragedy of Chagas disease in North America. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2300.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3814410/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24205411?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Pinto Dias JC. Human Chagas disease and migration in the context of globalization: some particular aspects. J Trop Med. 2013;2013:789758.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3625591/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23606862?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Coura JR, Viñas PA, Junqueira AC. Ecoepidemiology, short history and control of Chagas disease in the endemic countries and the new challenge for non-endemic countries. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2014;109:856-862.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4296489/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25410988?tool=bestpractice.com在严格意义上被认为是该病非流行的国家包括美国、加拿大以及一些欧洲和西太平洋地区的国家,此外,大多数患此病的美国人都是在该病高发的国家受到感染。[59]Tanowitz HB, Machado FS, Jelicks LA, et al. Perspectives on Trypanosoma cruzi-induced heart disease (Chagas disease). Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;51:524-539.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19410685?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Kirchhoff LV. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease) - a tropical disease now in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:639-644.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8341339?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Kirchhoff LV, Gam AA, Gilliam FC. American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease) in Central American immigrants. Am J Med. 1987;82:915-920.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3107385?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Kirchhoff LV, Neva FA. Chagas' disease in Latin American immigrants. JAMA. 1985;254:3058-3060.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3932696?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Société de Pathologie Exotique. Chagas disease. American trypanosomiasis. Recommendation for non-endemic zones [in French]. Med Trop (Mars). 2010;70:131-132.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20486344?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Rodríguez-Guardado A, Alvarez VA, Rodríguez Perez M, et al. Screening for Chagas' disease in HIV-positive immigrants from endemic areas. Epidemiol Infect. 2011;139:539-543.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20546632?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Pérez-López FR, Chedraui P. Chagas disease in pregnancy: a non-endemic problem in a globalized world. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2010;282:595-599.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20559648?tool=bestpractice.com然而,美国不能像其他欧洲国家一样被划定为典型的该病非流行国家。[35]Bern C, Montgomery SP. An estimate of the burden of Chagas disease in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:e52-e54.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/5/e52.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640226?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Teixeira AR, Nitz N, Guimaro MC, et al. Chagas disease. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82:788-798.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17148699?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Strasen J, Williams T, Ertl G, et al. Epidemiology of Chagas disease in Europe: many calculations, little knowledge. Clin Res Cardiol. 2014;103:1-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23989652?tool=bestpractice.com[55]European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Assessing the burden of key infectious diseases affecting migrant populations in the EU/EEA. May 2014. http://ecdc.europa.eu (last accessed 17 August 2016).http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/assessing-burden-disease-migrant-populations.pdf[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Kuehn BM. Putting Chagas disease on the US radar screen. JAMA. 2015;313:1195-1197.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25803331?tool=bestpractice.com美国南部各州(从乔治亚州到加利福尼亚州)已经确定了克氏锥虫的地方性兽疫流行周期,其中涉及有几种锥蝽媒介和哺乳动物宿主(如:浣熊、负鼠、家犬)。[69]Beard CB, Pye G, Steurer FJ, et al. Chagas disease in a domestic transmission cycle in southern Texas, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:103-105.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/9/1/02-0217_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12533289?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Kjos SA, Snowden KF, Craig TM, et al. Distribution and characterization of canine Chagas disease in Texas. Vet Parasitol. 2008;152:249-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18255233?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Yabsley MJ, Noblet GP. Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi in raccoons from South Carolina and Georgia. J Wildl Dis. 2002;38:75-83.http://www.jwildlifedis.org/doi/pdf/10.7589/0090-3558-38.1.75http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11838232?tool=bestpractice.com据报道,克氏锥虫作为地方性动物病已经传播至美国北部的弗吉尼亚州和马里兰州。尽管美国已有这类锥蝽臭虫出现(大部分为嗜血锥蝽),但目前很少有被记录的媒介传播引起的人类恰加斯病的病例。[72]Hotez PJ. Neglected infections of poverty in the United States of America. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2008;2:e256.http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0000256http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18575621?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Dorn PL, Perniciaro L, Yabsley MJ, et al. Autochthonous transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, Louisiana. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:605-607.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2725963http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17553277?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Diaz JH. Chagas disease in the United States: a cause for concern in Louisiana? J La State Med Soc. 2007;159:21-23,25-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17396472?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Barrett VJ, Leiby DA, Odom JL, et al. Negligible prevalence of antibodies against Trypanosoma cruzi among blood donors in the southeastern United States. Am J Clin Pathol. 1997;108:499-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9353087?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Klotz SA, Dorn PL, Klotz JH, et al. Feeding behavior of triatomines from the southwestern United States: an update on potential risk for transmission of Chagas disease. Acta Trop. 2009;111:114-118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19524078?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Herwaldt BL, Grijalva MJ, Newsome AL, et al. Use of polymerase chain reaction to diagnose the fifth reported US case of autochthonous transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, in Tennessee, 1998. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:395-399.http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/181/1/395.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10608796?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Schiffler RJ, Mansur GP, Navin TR, et al. Indigenous Chagas' disease (American trypanosomiasis) in California. JAMA. 1984;251:2983-2984.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6425516?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Ochs DE, Hnilica VS, Moser DR, et al. Postmortem diagnosis of autochthonous acute Chagasic myocarditis by polymerase chain reaction amplification of a species-specific DNA sequence of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996;54:526-529.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8644910?tool=bestpractice.com总之,该病感染的可能性已有所减小(例如:由于住房条件改善),但有些人群还仍存在患该病的风险(例如:临时居住于美国/墨西哥边沿一带的移民人群)。由于国内传播媒介的增加、全球化以及未来温度的上升,该病可能于美国迅速流行。[80]Hall CA, Polizzi C, Yabsley MJ, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi prevalence and epidemiologic trends in lemurs on St. Catherines Island, Georgia. J Parasitol. 2007;93:93-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17436947?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Coura JR, Borges-Pereira J. Chagas disease. What is known and what should be improved: a systemic review. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2012;45:286-296.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822012000300002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22760123?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Buekens P, Almendares O, Carlier Y, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of Chagas' disease in North America: why don't we do more? Matern Child Health J. 2008;12:283-286.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17602289?tool=bestpractice.com