临床治疗克氏锥虫感染的目的是用特殊的药物治疗方法消除人类宿主体内的寄生虫,同时治疗与疾病有关的来自于不可逆的损伤的临床综合征。
尽管关于恰加斯病疗法的治愈率各有不同,但存在关于对治疗方法的使用共识,即取决于不同的因素,例如恰加斯病的临床分期和表现形式;患者年龄;和其他相关的临床状态。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[222]Gross PA, Barrett TL, Dellinger EP, et al. Purpose of quality standards for infectious diseases. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;18:421.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8011826?tool=bestpractice.com尽管公共卫生对恰加斯病较为重要,但目前相关的严格临床试验很少。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[223]de Andrade AL, Zicker F, de Oliveira RM, et al. Randomised trial of efficacy of benznidazole in treatment of early Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Lancet. 1996;348:1407-1413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8937280?tool=bestpractice.com[224]Marin-Neto JA, Rassi A Jr, Avezum A Jr, et al. The BENEFIT trial: testing the hypothesis that trypanocidal therapy is beneficial for patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):319-324.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900042&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753491?tool=bestpractice.com[225]Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:724-734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702588?tool=bestpractice.com[226]Sosa Estani S, Segura EL, Ruiz AM, et al. Efficacy of chemotherapy with benznidazole in children in the indeterminate phase of Chagas' disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;59:526-529.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/59/4/526.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9790423?tool=bestpractice.com[227]Coura JR, de Abreu LL, Willcox HP, et al. Comparative controlled study on the use of benznidazole, nifurtimox and placebo, in the chronic form of Chagas' disease, in a field area with interrupted transmission. I. Preliminary evaluation [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1997;30:139-144.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9148337?tool=bestpractice.com[228]Viotti R, Vigliano C. Etiological treatment of chronic Chagas disease: neglected 'evidence' by evidence-based medicine. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2007;5:717-726.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17678432?tool=bestpractice.com[229]Yun O, Lima MA, Ellman T, et al. Feasibility, drug safety, and effectiveness of etiological treatment programs for Chagas disease in Honduras, Guatemala, and Bolivia: 10-year experience of Medecins sans Frontieres. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3:e488.http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0000488http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19582142?tool=bestpractice.com[230]Kappagoda S, Ioannidis JP. Neglected tropical diseases: survey and geometry of randomised evidence. BMJ. 2012;345:e6512.http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e6512?view=long&pmid=23089149http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23089149?tool=bestpractice.com
可对恰加斯病的并发症进行必要的外科干预治疗,此干预治疗主要应用于晚期疾病(例如:巨食管症、肠扭转或心脏功能衰竭)。
抗寄生虫治疗
目前,仅存在 2 种对急性期和早期慢性期恰加斯病治疗有效的抗寄生虫药。CDC: Parasites - American trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas disease)它们是苄硝唑(硝基咪唑衍生剂)和硝呋莫司(硝基呋喃化合物)。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[198]Sosa-Estani S, Viotti R, Segura EL. Therapy, diagnosis and prognosis of chronic Chagas disease: insight gained in Argentina. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):167-180.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900023&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753472?tool=bestpractice.com[231]Coura JR. Present situation and new strategies for Chagas disease chemotherapy - a proposal. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104:549-554.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000400002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19722074?tool=bestpractice.com[232]Fernandes CD, Tiecher FM, Balbinot MM, et al. Efficacy of benznidazole treatment for asymptomatic Chagasic patients from state of Rio Grande do Sul evaluated during a three years follow-up. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):27-32.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000100004&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19274372?tool=bestpractice.com[233]Dias JC, Coura JR, Yasuda MA. The present situation, challenges, and perspectives regarding the production and utilization of effective drugs against human Chagas disease. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014;47:123-125.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822014000100123&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603750?tool=bestpractice.com对比苄硝唑和硝呋莫司:有少量证据显示,与用硝呋莫司治疗相比,用苄硝唑治疗的患者有较好的动物接种诊断结果。[227]Coura JR, de Abreu LL, Willcox HP, et al. Comparative controlled study on the use of benznidazole, nifurtimox and placebo, in the chronic form of Chagas' disease, in a field area with interrupted transmission. I. Preliminary evaluation [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 1997;30:139-144.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9148337?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。这些药物当前在英国或美国还无法获得,但在美国,这些药物可通过 CDC 获得,并在遵守临床研究协议的情况下将其用于治疗特殊的克氏锥虫感染。根据疾病流行和非流行国家的需求,苄硝唑被大量应用于慢性恰加斯病的抗寄生虫治疗。[233]Dias JC, Coura JR, Yasuda MA. The present situation, challenges, and perspectives regarding the production and utilization of effective drugs against human Chagas disease. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014;47:123-125.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822014000100123&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603750?tool=bestpractice.com苄硝唑可在阿根廷、巴西和厄瓜多尔获得;硝呋莫司可在智利获得。苄硝唑是通过 Laboratório Endocrínico Argentino (ELEA,Maprimed) 和泛美卫生组织 (PAHO) 循环基金分布于拉丁美洲,通过 Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios 分布于西班牙,同时通过 ELEA 和世界卫生组织 (WHO) 分布于世界其他地方。[233]Dias JC, Coura JR, Yasuda MA. The present situation, challenges, and perspectives regarding the production and utilization of effective drugs against human Chagas disease. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014;47:123-125.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822014000100123&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603750?tool=bestpractice.com苄硝唑的儿童制剂可在阿根廷和巴西获得。[233]Dias JC, Coura JR, Yasuda MA. The present situation, challenges, and perspectives regarding the production and utilization of effective drugs against human Chagas disease. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014;47:123-125.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822014000100123&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603750?tool=bestpractice.com[234]García MC, Manzo RH, Jimenez-Kairuz AF. Extemporaneous benznidazole oral suspension prepared from commercially available tablets for treatment of Chagas disease in paediatric patients. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20:864-870.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25784402?tool=bestpractice.com苄硝唑耐受性较好,也就是说此药为一线治疗用药。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[198]Sosa-Estani S, Viotti R, Segura EL. Therapy, diagnosis and prognosis of chronic Chagas disease: insight gained in Argentina. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):167-180.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900023&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753472?tool=bestpractice.com[233]Dias JC, Coura JR, Yasuda MA. The present situation, challenges, and perspectives regarding the production and utilization of effective drugs against human Chagas disease. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014;47:123-125.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822014000100123&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603750?tool=bestpractice.com[235]Perez-Molina JA, Perez-Ayala A, Moreno S, et al. Use of benznidazole to treat chronic Chagas' disease: a systematic review with a meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:1139-1147.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19819909?tool=bestpractice.com[236]Miller DA, Hernandez S, Rodriguez De Armas L, et al. Tolerance of benznidazole in a United States Chagas disease clinic. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1237-1240.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25601454?tool=bestpractice.com由于可用的治疗药物有一定的毒性作用,因此不应给予妊娠期或有重度肾功能不全或肝功能不全的患者以治疗药物。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com与成年人相比,儿童有较少的不良反应,且可耐受较高剂量。[237]Carlier Y, Torrico F, Sosa-Estani S, et al. Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1250.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22039554?tool=bestpractice.com因为有超过 30% 的服用苄硝唑进行治疗的患者出现药物不良反应,因此药物不良反应预防模型是使重度药物不良反应最小化和提高药物依附作用并由此帮助医生治疗恰加斯病的一项重要工具。由苄硝唑导致的不良事件的预测因素包括女性、低教育状态和白种人以及混合种族。[238]Sperandio da Silva GM, Mediano MF, Alvarenga Americano do Brasil PE, et al. A clinical adverse drug reaction prediction model for patients with Chagas disease treated with benznidazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58:6371-6377.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4249401/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25114135?tool=bestpractice.com
比苄硝唑或硝呋莫司更有效的药物还不能于不久的将来可用。[233]Dias JC, Coura JR, Yasuda MA. The present situation, challenges, and perspectives regarding the production and utilization of effective drugs against human Chagas disease. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014;47:123-125.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822014000100123&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24603750?tool=bestpractice.com
支持治疗
对所有急性、慢性和复发患者都应进行此项治疗。对于有心脏表现的患者需接受肥胖纠正并保持最佳体重;控制盐的摄入(中度疾病患者摄盐量为 3-4 g/天,重度疾病患者摄盐量为 2 g/天);限制饮水(对重度疾病患者);消除复杂性因素;避免饮酒;进行个性化的体育活动项目(根据心脏病等级和患者年龄);接种流行性感冒和肺炎球菌疫苗(如果为晚期心脏病)。有必要对专业性、学校或体育活动进行限制。对于有食管表现的患者应建议其进行进食时,对食物进行仔细咀嚼;如果有必要的话,食用流食或半流食;避免在睡前进食;同时避免于晚间服用片剂。
对于有结肠症状的患者应要求其规律饮食;限制食用可引起便秘的食物(香蕉、番石榴、嘉宝果);充分饮水(至少 2 L/天);增加促进肠道运动食物的食用(木瓜、李子、桔子、高纤维食物);对排泄进行系统性关注;使用渗透性泻药或矿物油(由于有误吸风险,因此避免于晚间服用);进行每周两次的甘油灌肠;避免服用可引起便秘的药物(鸦片制剂、利尿剂、抗抑郁药、抗组胺剂、抗惊厥剂、含有氢氧化铝的抗酸剂)。
物理康复
对于恰加斯病患者,运动是心血管康复的一个重要方面,这是因为运动可以增加心脏功能以及提高生活质量。然而,在文献中,关于此主题的试验很少。[239]Bittencourt HS, Rodrigues Junior Ede S, Cruz CG, et al. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation in a patient with chronic heart failure due to Chagas disease: a case report. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2011;66:927-928.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109399/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21789404?tool=bestpractice.com对于慢性恰加斯病的患者,基于简单的监督性有氧运动的心血管康复具有一定的安全性。[240]Mendes MFA, Lopes WS, Nogueira GA, et al. Aerobic physical exercise in women with Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Fisioter Mov. 2011;24:591-601.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-51502011000400002&lng=en&tlng=pt此种体育活动应根据患者心脏衰竭程度和年龄而个性化定制。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com
实验室意外暴露和感染
在高风险的环境下,应在意外发生后立即开始抗寄生虫治疗。此类环境包括通过被污染针刺或皮肤穿透伤口暴露于锥虫活体,或者通过眼或口腔黏膜与锥虫接触。培养的样本、分析用试样、被感染的实验室动物、寄生虫血症加重的样本和坏死碎片都是潜在的感染源。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.在低风险的环境(例如:与慢性感染患者的血液接触)中,不需进行预防治疗,但建议进行血清监测。
关于对意外的实验室暴露和感染的妊娠女性的治疗目前还未达成一致。然而,在这种极为少见的事件中,应对母体和胎儿进行监测,且仅在婴儿出生后才可以开始对疾病进行治疗。
应对有重度肾脏或肝脏损伤的高风险患者行血清学监测;直到肾脏或肝脏损伤被治愈之后,才能服用抗寄生虫药进行治疗。
急性感染
对于急性期疾病(持续 3-8 周),应对所有未妊娠或者无重度肾脏或肝脏衰竭的患者进行抗寄生虫治疗,且无论其感染为何种模式,应在患者确诊后立即行此治疗。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com[241]Wegner DH, Rohwedder RW. Experience with nifurtimox in chronic Chagas' infection. Preliminary report. Arzneimittelforschung. 1972;22:1635-1641.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4630486?tool=bestpractice.com治疗可预防或减慢心脏病的进展,并可明显减少疾病致死率。在无特异性治疗的情况下,急性感染的患者可成为终身感染携带者。然而,由于可用的治疗药物有一定的毒性作用,因此不应给予处于妊娠期或者有重度肾功能不全或肝功能不全的患者以抗寄生虫药物治疗。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com先天性克氏锥虫感染被认为是新生儿急性感染,并应对其行抗寄生虫药物治疗。[237]Carlier Y, Torrico F, Sosa-Estani S, et al. Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1250.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22039554?tool=bestpractice.com[242]Carlier Y, Sosa-Estani S, Luquetti AO, et al. Congenital Chagas disease: an update. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:363-368.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762015005040405&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25760448?tool=bestpractice.com[243]Gebrekristos HT, Buekens P. Mother-to-child transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2014;3(suppl 1):S36-S40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25232476?tool=bestpractice.com简化并减少治疗时长可对提高治疗的顺从性。[244]Chippaux JP, Salas-Clavijo AN, Postigo JR, et al. Evaluation of compliance to congenital Chagas disease treatment: results of a randomised trial in Bolivia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2013;107:1-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23296694?tool=bestpractice.com
应对妊娠患者和有重度肾脏或肝脏损伤的患者行支持治疗。直到新生儿出生后或者肾脏或肝脏损伤治愈后,再对患者进行抗寄生虫药物治疗。对于由被感染母亲生产的新生儿,其来源于母体的克氏锥虫抗体可持续 6 到 9 个月。应对患者定期重复进行血清学检查,如果结果为阳性,应立即开始特异性治疗。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com[237]Carlier Y, Torrico F, Sosa-Estani S, et al. Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1250.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22039554?tool=bestpractice.com[245]Freilij H, Altcheh J. Congenital Chagas' disease: diagnostic and clinical aspects. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21:551-555.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8527542?tool=bestpractice.com
有心脏病的患者可能需要接受心脏起搏器放置以对抗心房和心室节律紊乱;接受治疗心动过速的消融术;植入除颤器;或接受左心室心尖室壁瘤切除术。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.[59]Tanowitz HB, Machado FS, Jelicks LA, et al. Perspectives on Trypanosoma cruzi-induced heart disease (Chagas disease). Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;51:524-539.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19410685?tool=bestpractice.com[205]Benchimol Barbosa PR. Noninvasive prognostic markers for cardiac death and ventricular arrhythmia in long-term follow-up of subjects with chronic Chagas' disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2007;40:167-178.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-879X2007000200003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17273653?tool=bestpractice.com[206]Bestetti RB, Dalbo CM, Arruda CA, et al. Predictors of sudden cardiac death for patients with Chagas' disease: a hospital-derived cohort study. Cardiology. 1996;87:481-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904674?tool=bestpractice.com[246]Bestetti RB, Theodoropoulos TA. A systematic review of studies on heart transplantation for patients with end-stage Chagas' heart disease. J Card Fail. 2009;15:249-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19327627?tool=bestpractice.com利用皮质类固醇或干扰素-γ疗法治疗急性恰加斯病心肌炎的方案还未被建立。
慢性感染
儿童:所有≤12 岁的血清反应阳性的儿童都应接受治疗。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[226]Sosa Estani S, Segura EL, Ruiz AM, et al. Efficacy of chemotherapy with benznidazole in children in the indeterminate phase of Chagas' disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;59:526-529.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/59/4/526.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9790423?tool=bestpractice.com[247]Urbina JA. Recent clinical trials for the etiological treatment of chronic Chagas disease: advances, challenges and perspectives. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2015;62:149-156.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jeu.12184/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25284065?tool=bestpractice.com年龄为 13 到 18 岁的有慢性克氏锥虫感染的儿童应接受治疗。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com
对于育龄期女性患者,应对其进行疾病治疗,这是因为通过对疾病的治疗可减少母婴传播疾病的风险同时也可对先天性疾病进行预防。[248]Fabbro DL, Danesi E, Olivera V, et al. Trypanocide treatment of women infected with Trypanosoma cruzi and its effect on preventing congenital Chagas. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e3312.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4239005/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25411847?tool=bestpractice.com然而,对于不使用避孕剂的性活动活跃的女性,在对其开始治疗前应先排除其妊娠的可能。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com
对于成年人,应在其出现近期慢性症状(感染后的 5-12 年内)时开始采用特异性治疗。[223]de Andrade AL, Zicker F, de Oliveira RM, et al. Randomised trial of efficacy of benznidazole in treatment of early Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Lancet. 1996;348:1407-1413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8937280?tool=bestpractice.com[225]Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:724-734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702588?tool=bestpractice.com对有非确定性疾病、轻度至中度心肌病(如:无充血性心力衰竭出现)苄硝唑对非确定症状和早期恰加斯心脏病患者治疗的效果:有大量证据显示,服用苄硝唑 60 天可使血清转换在第 36 个月呈阴性。[223]de Andrade AL, Zicker F, de Oliveira RM, et al. Randomised trial of efficacy of benznidazole in treatment of early Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Lancet. 1996;348:1407-1413.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8937280?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。和有胃肠症状的成年患者进行治疗。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com[247]Urbina JA. Recent clinical trials for the etiological treatment of chronic Chagas disease: advances, challenges and perspectives. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2015;62:149-156.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jeu.12184/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25284065?tool=bestpractice.com[249]Campi-Azevedo AC, Gomes JA, Teixeira-Carvalho A, et al. Etiological treatment of Chagas disease patients with benznidazole lead to a sustained pro-inflammatory profile counterbalanced by modulatory events. Immunobiology. 2015;220:564-574.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25648688?tool=bestpractice.com[250]Barbosa JL, Thiers CA, de Bragança Pereira B, et al. Impact of the use of benznidazole followed by antioxidant supplementation in the prevalence of ventricular arrhythmias in patients with chronic Chagas disease: pilot study. Am J Ther. 2014 Nov 25 [Epub ahead of print].http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25461962?tool=bestpractice.com苄硝唑对非确定症状和非重度的慢性恰加斯病患者治疗的效果:有大量证据显示此项治疗可预防或减慢心脏病的发展,同时可显著减少致死风险。[225]Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:724-734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702588?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。胃肠道症状并非为恰加斯病抗寄生虫治疗的禁忌症。
对于年龄>50 的患者,药物毒性的风险比青年患者高,[251]Wegner DH, Rohwedder RW. The effect of nifurtimox in acute Chagas' infection. Arzneimittelforschung. 1972;22:1624-1635.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4630485?tool=bestpractice.com因此,应对此类患者制定个性的治疗方案。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com[225]Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:724-734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702588?tool=bestpractice.com[252]Sosa Estani S, Segura EL. Treatment of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in the undetermined phase. Experience and current guidelines of treatment in Argentina. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1999;94(suppl 1):363-365.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02761999000700070&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10677756?tool=bestpractice.com治疗可预防或减慢心肌病的进展。[225]Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:724-734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702588?tool=bestpractice.com[253]Imai K, Maeda T, Sayama Y, et al. Chronic Chagas disease with advanced cardiac complications in Japan: case report and literature review. Parasitol Int. 2015;64:240-242.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25744336?tool=bestpractice.com苄硝唑对非确定症状和非重度的慢性恰加斯病患者治疗的效果:有大量证据显示此项治疗可预防或减慢心脏病的发展,同时可显著减少致死风险。[225]Viotti R, Vigliano C, Lococo B, et al. Long-term cardiac outcomes of treating chronic Chagas disease with benznidazole versus no treatment: a nonrandomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:724-734.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16702588?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。然而,目前还没有数据证实对该病的治疗可影响胃肠道疾病的进展。应选择可减少心脏病发生或进展风险的相关治疗方法。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com
总之,不需要对有晚期疾病特征的患者进行特异性抗克氏锥虫治疗,例如有充血性心力衰竭的恰加斯心肌病 (Kuschnir分级 III)、[253]Imai K, Maeda T, Sayama Y, et al. Chronic Chagas disease with advanced cardiac complications in Japan: case report and literature review. Parasitol Int. 2015;64:240-242.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25744336?tool=bestpractice.com巨食管或巨结肠症。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com在患者炎症和纤维损伤消退后,应重点进行支持治疗,但此种方案还正处于实验性研究的观察期,还未于临床被证实有效。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Katz L, et al. Chagas disease and the US blood supply. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:476-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725796?tool=bestpractice.com
有心脏病的患者可能需要接受心脏起搏器放置以对抗心房和心室节律紊乱;接受治疗心动过速的消融术;植入除颤器;或接受左心室心尖室壁瘤切除术。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.[59]Tanowitz HB, Machado FS, Jelicks LA, et al. Perspectives on Trypanosoma cruzi-induced heart disease (Chagas disease). Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;51:524-539.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19410685?tool=bestpractice.com[205]Benchimol Barbosa PR. Noninvasive prognostic markers for cardiac death and ventricular arrhythmia in long-term follow-up of subjects with chronic Chagas' disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2007;40:167-178.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-879X2007000200003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17273653?tool=bestpractice.com[206]Bestetti RB, Dalbo CM, Arruda CA, et al. Predictors of sudden cardiac death for patients with Chagas' disease: a hospital-derived cohort study. Cardiology. 1996;87:481-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904674?tool=bestpractice.com[246]Bestetti RB, Theodoropoulos TA. A systematic review of studies on heart transplantation for patients with end-stage Chagas' heart disease. J Card Fail. 2009;15:249-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19327627?tool=bestpractice.com对于有巨食管的患者,其可能需要接受胃-食管连接部位前段的食管贲门切除术(联合瓣膜成形术)以减少对食管扩大无反应的食物反流症;治疗重度巨食管症的腹腔镜肌切开术;或对重度疾病患者进行部分食管切除术并对切除部分通过食管胃成形术进行重建。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.[212]Dantas RO. Vigorous achalasia in Chagas' disease. Dis Esophagus. 2002;15:305-308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12472477?tool=bestpractice.com巨结肠患者可能需要接受 Duhamel-Haddad 手术,此外,乙状结肠扭转的患者可能需要接受联合坏死段切除的乙状结肠前段造口术。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.
应对妊娠患者和有重度肾脏或肝脏损伤的患者行支持治疗。直到新生儿出生后或者肾脏或肝脏损伤治愈后,再对患者进行抗寄生虫药物治疗。一般来说,有慢性恰加斯病的母亲不需禁忌母乳喂养。对于免疫抑制导致的急性期或复发期患者,或者母体出现乳头周围有裂缝或乳头出血症状,则不建议其进行母乳喂养。[254]Norman FF, López-Vélez R. Chagas disease and breast-feeding. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:1561-1566.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3810739/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24050257?tool=bestpractice.com
复发疾病
复发的风险各异,且取决于患者的免疫抑制程度。[114]Altclas JD, Barcan L, Nagel C, et al. Organ transplantation and Chagas disease. JAMA. 2008;299:1134-1135.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18334687?tool=bestpractice.com[167]Altclas J, Sinagra A, Dictar M, et al. Chagas disease in bone marrow transplantation: an approach to preemptive therapy. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2005;36:123-129.http://www.nature.com/bmt/journal/v36/n2/full/1705006a.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15908978?tool=bestpractice.com[255]Riarte A, Luna C, Sabatiello R, et al. Chagas' disease in patients with kidney transplants: 7 years of experience 1989-1996. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:561-567.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10530448?tool=bestpractice.com对于免疫抑制患者,如那些有血液学的肿瘤、接受免疫抑制剂治疗或有 HIV/恰加斯病合并感染的患者,可通过寄生虫学试验(外周血、其他体液或组织的直接检测)来确定其是否复发。
通常应为免疫抑制的患者提供治疗。[60]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, et al. Evaluation and treatment of Chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;298:2171-2181.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209410http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18000201?tool=bestpractice.com对于有这些情况的患者应提供为期 60 天的传统特异性治疗,之后根据患者临床表现来决定治疗延长时间,延长时间可多达 90 天。
有心脏病的患者可能需要接受心脏起搏器放置,以对抗心房和心室节律紊乱;接受治疗心动过速的消融术;植入除颤器;或接受左心室心尖室壁瘤切除术(尚未确定)。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.[59]Tanowitz HB, Machado FS, Jelicks LA, et al. Perspectives on Trypanosoma cruzi-induced heart disease (Chagas disease). Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;51:524-539.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19410685?tool=bestpractice.com[205]Benchimol Barbosa PR. Noninvasive prognostic markers for cardiac death and ventricular arrhythmia in long-term follow-up of subjects with chronic Chagas' disease. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2007;40:167-178.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-879X2007000200003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17273653?tool=bestpractice.com[206]Bestetti RB, Dalbo CM, Arruda CA, et al. Predictors of sudden cardiac death for patients with Chagas' disease: a hospital-derived cohort study. Cardiology. 1996;87:481-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8904674?tool=bestpractice.com[246]Bestetti RB, Theodoropoulos TA. A systematic review of studies on heart transplantation for patients with end-stage Chagas' heart disease. J Card Fail. 2009;15:249-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19327627?tool=bestpractice.com对于有巨食管病征的患者,可能需要接受胃-食管连接部位前段的食管贲门切除术(联合瓣膜成形术),以减少对食管扩大无反应的食物反流症;治疗重度巨食管症的腹腔镜肌切开术;或对重度疾病患者进行部分食管切除术并对切除部分通过食管胃成形术进行重建。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.[212]Dantas RO. Vigorous achalasia in Chagas' disease. Dis Esophagus. 2002;15:305-308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12472477?tool=bestpractice.com巨结肠患者可能需要接受 Duhamel-Haddad 手术,此外,乙状结肠扭转的患者可能需要接受联合坏死段切除的乙状结肠前段造口术。[2]Siqueira Batista R, Gomes AP, Corrêa AD, et al. Moléstia de Chagas. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Rubio;2007:248.[30]Dias JC, Coura JR. Clinica e terapeutica da doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: FIOCRUZ; 1997:486.
应对妊娠患者和有重度肾脏或肝脏损伤的患者进行支持治疗。新生儿出生后、肾脏或肝脏损伤治愈后,再对患者进行抗寄生虫药物治疗。
此组患者中妊娠女性较少。应对此类患者进行临床监测,并提高母体的免疫状态。可在 HIV 患者中发现有高水平的寄生虫血症,此现象可增加恰加斯病垂直传播的机率。按照理想的做法,由 HIV 感染的母体产出的新生儿不应接受母乳喂养。
器官衰竭末期
对于恰加斯病器官衰竭末期的患者可能需要接受器官移植。[256]Aulet F, Riarte A, Pattin M, et al. Chagas disease and kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc. 1991;23:2653.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1926519?tool=bestpractice.com[257]de Arteaga J, Massari PU, Galli B, et al. Renal transplantation and Chagas' disease. Transplant Proc. 1992;24:1900-1901.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1412905?tool=bestpractice.com[258]de Faria JB, Alves G. Transmission of Chagas' disease through cadaveric renal transplantation. Transplantation. 1993;56:1583-1584.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8279046?tool=bestpractice.com[259]Vazquez MC, Riarte A, Pattin M, et al. Chagas' disease can be transmitted through kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc. 1993;25:3259-3260.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8266534?tool=bestpractice.com[260]Vazquez MC, Sabbatiello R, Schiavelli R, et al. Chagas disease and transplantation. Transplant Proc. 1996;28:3301-3303.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8962281?tool=bestpractice.com在这种情况下,由于存在感染传播和恰加斯病复发的风险,因此应对捐赠者和接受者的血清状态进行检测。[13]Brazilian Ministry of Health. Brazilian consensus on Chagas disease [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2005;38(suppl 3):7-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16416933?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Kun H, Moore A, Mascola L, et al. Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi by heart transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1534-1540.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19400748?tool=bestpractice.com[221]Chin-Hong PV, Schwartz BS, Bern C, et al. Screening and treatment of Chagas disease in organ transplant recipients in the United States: recommendations from the Chagas in Transplant Working Group. Am J Transplant. 2011;11:672-680.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2011.03444.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21401868?tool=bestpractice.com[246]Bestetti RB, Theodoropoulos TA. A systematic review of studies on heart transplantation for patients with end-stage Chagas' heart disease. J Card Fail. 2009;15:249-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19327627?tool=bestpractice.com[261]Rassi A Jr, Dias JC, Marin-Neto JA, et al. Challenges and opportunities for primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention of Chagas' disease. Heart. 2009;95:524-534.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19131444?tool=bestpractice.com外科移植小组需有能力对患者是否接受抗寄生虫药物治疗作出决定。