怀疑肥厚型心肌病的患者,应询问病史(包括家族史)、体格检查、并进行心电图和心脏超声检查,然后确定诊断。无症状的患者常在常规心脏检查或家族筛查时确诊。[2]Wigle ED, Rakowski H, Kimball BP, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: clinical spectrum and treatment. Circulation. 1995;92:1680-1692.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/92/7/1680.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7671349?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Wynne J, Braunwald E. The cardiomyopathies and myocarditides. In: Braunwald E, Zipes DP, Libby P, eds. Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1997.出现临床症状后确诊的患者最多,仅有32%是在常规体检时确诊。[7]Adabag AS, Kuskowski MA, Maron BJ. Determinants for clinical diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98:1507-1511.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17126660?tool=bestpractice.com实验室DNA分析突变基因是诊断HCM的确证方法,但通常仅用于筛查。
病史
应注意晕厥、心力衰竭、猝死或过早死亡家族史。因为该疾病为不完全显性遗传,有些患者可以没有家族史。患者也可能没有症状。但要特别询问患者有无晕厥前状态或晕厥病史,尤其是发生在运动中,也要注意有无劳力性呼吸困难、心悸或胸痛。50 岁以上的患者可表现出心房颤动或卒中症状。[19]Robinson K, Frenneaux MP, Stockins B, et al. Atrial fibrillation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a longitudinal study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1990;15:1279-1285.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2329232?tool=bestpractice.com
体格检查
患者的体检结果可出现明显的左心室 (LV) 抬举;双重心尖搏动;颈动脉上升支快速搏动;左下缘收缩期喷射样杂音,运动和站立时加重,仰卧或下蹲时减轻;和第四心音。[2]Wigle ED, Rakowski H, Kimball BP, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: clinical spectrum and treatment. Circulation. 1995;92:1680-1692.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/92/7/1680.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7671349?tool=bestpractice.com
诊断试验
心电图上II、III、avF、V5和V6导联可见明显的Q波。也可能出现左心室肥厚 (LVH)、ST 段压低和预激。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 与LVH有关的心电图变化来自盐湖城儿童医学中心心力衰竭和心脏移植项目Melanie Everitt的资料,允许使用 [Citation ends].胸部X线可提示心脏扩大。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 胸片提示,一个HCM患者的心脏扩大来自盐湖城儿童医学中心心力衰竭和心脏移植项目Melanie Everitt的资料,允许使用 [Citation ends].必须使用超声心动图来确诊疾病,其典型特征是非对称性室间隔肥厚。[2]Wigle ED, Rakowski H, Kimball BP, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: clinical spectrum and treatment. Circulation. 1995;92:1680-1692.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/92/7/1680.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7671349?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 心脏超声长轴:非对称性室间隔肥厚来自Anji T.Yetman的资料,犹他大学,允许使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 心尖四腔切面显示室间隔肥厚来自Anji T.Yetman的资料,犹他大学,允许使用 [Citation ends].
其他超声心动图的特征包括:[2]Wigle ED, Rakowski H, Kimball BP, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: clinical spectrum and treatment. Circulation. 1995;92:1680-1692.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/92/7/1680.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7671349?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Wynne J, Braunwald E. The cardiomyopathies and myocarditides. In: Braunwald E, Zipes DP, Libby P, eds. Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1997.[20]Nagueh SF, Bierig SM, Budoff MJ, et al. American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: endorsed by the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24:473-498.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21514501?tool=bestpractice.com
在对一级亲属进行超声心动图筛检时,应使用多普勒组织成像评估其有无舒张功能障碍,因为这种异常可能在明显的 LVH 发病前出现。[20]Nagueh SF, Bierig SM, Budoff MJ, et al. American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: endorsed by the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24:473-498.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21514501?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Ho CY, Sweitzer NK, McDonough B, et al. Assessment of diastolic function with Doppler tissue imaging to predict genotype in preclinical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2002;105:2992-2997.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/105/25/2992.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12081993?tool=bestpractice.com
对于心脏超声检查中左室室壁和左心尖部显示不清的患者,应用心脏MRI可提高诊断率。也可使用磁共振成像 (MRI) 评估收缩与舒张功能。使用钆造影剂延迟增强磁共振成像可识别心肌纤维化的部位(可以作为不良临床结局的标志物),或可能有助于鉴别 HCM 和运动员心脏。[22]O’Hanlon R, Assomull RG, Prasad SK. Use of cardiovascular magnetic resonance for diagnosis and management in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Curr Cardiol Rep 2007;9:51-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17362685?tool=bestpractice.com心脏MRI已成为识别心律失常高危患者的工具,几项研究发现,增强心肌钆延迟成像发现的心肌纤维化与室性心律失常有关。[23]Adabag AS, Maron BJ, Appelbaum E, et al. Occurrence and frequency of arrythmias in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in relation to delayed enhancement on cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:1369-1374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18387438?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Fluechter S, Kuschyk J, Wolpert C, et al. Extent of late gadolinium enhancement detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance correlates with the inducibility of ventricular tachyarrhythmia in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2010;12:30.http://www.jcmr-online.com/content/12/1/30http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20492668?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Suk T, Edwards C, Hart H, et al. Myocardial scar detected by contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is associated with ventricular tachycardia in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy patients. Heart Lung Circ. 2008;17:370-374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18562248?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Leonardi S, Raineri C, De Ferrari GM, et al. Usefulness of cardiac magnetic resonance in assessing the risk of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:2003-2010.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/30/16/2003.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19474054?tool=bestpractice.com[27]O'Hanlon R, Grasso A, Roughton M, et al. Prognostic significance of myocardial fibrosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:867-874.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20688032?tool=bestpractice.com纤维化也是死亡的独立危险因素。[20]Nagueh SF, Bierig SM, Budoff MJ, et al. American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: endorsed by the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24:473-498.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21514501?tool=bestpractice.com死亡风险:一项包括 200 余例 HCM 患者的研究的低质量证据表明,存在纤维化是死亡的强独立预测因素。[28]Bruder O, Wagner A, Jensen CJ, et al. Myocardial scar visualized by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging predicts major adverse events in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:875-887.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20667520?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
对于HCM进行冠状动脉造影,无论是有创的,还是通过CT成像,以评价有无冠状动脉疾病,都是有适应证的。即使没有梗阻性病变,单光子发射计算机断层扫描或心肌灌注显像也可能显示有灌注缺损。[29]Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2011;124:e783-e831.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/124/24/e783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068434?tool=bestpractice.com
危险分层
在确诊后,除非有禁忌证,患者均应接受危险分层,包括动态心电图(Holter 监测)和运动负荷心电图检查,以进一步确定猝死的风险。[1]Maron BJ, Olivotto I, Maron MS. The dilemma of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction and sudden death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: do patients with gradients really deserve prophylactic defibrillators? Eur Heart J. 2006;27:1895-1897.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818455?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2011;124:e783-e831.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/124/24/e783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068434?tool=bestpractice.com猝死的危险因素如下:[1]Maron BJ, Olivotto I, Maron MS. The dilemma of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction and sudden death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: do patients with gradients really deserve prophylactic defibrillators? Eur Heart J. 2006;27:1895-1897.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818455?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Maron MS, Olivotto I, Betocchi S, et al. Effect of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction on clinical outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:295-303.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12540642?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2011;124:e783-e831.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/124/24/e783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068434?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Maron BJ, Spirito P, Shen WK, et al. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators and prevention of sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. JAMA. 2007;298:405-412.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=208110http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17652294?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Goldberger JJ, Cain ME, Hohnloser SH, et al. American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology Foundation/Heart Rhythm Society scientific statement on noninvasive risk stratification techniques for identifying patients at risk for sudden cardiac death. Circulation. 2008;118:1497-1518.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/118/14/1497.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18804749?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Christiaans I, van Engelen K, van Langen IM, et al. Risk stratification for sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: systematic review of clinical risk markers. Europace. 2010;12:313-321.http://europace.oxfordjournals.org/content/12/3/313.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20118111?tool=bestpractice.com
即使患者的冠心病可能性较小,但如果有心绞痛或运动试验时出现ST段压低,也应通过核素心肌显像或冠脉CT评估有无心肌缺血。在考虑到其他患者因素的情况下,如果患冠状动脉疾病 (CAD) 的可能性较高,则应行 CT 动脉造影或心脏导管术。[20]Nagueh SF, Bierig SM, Budoff MJ, et al. American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: endorsed by the American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance, and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2011;24:473-498.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21514501?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2011;124:e783-e831.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/124/24/e783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068434?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Lubarsky L, Gupta MP, Hecht HS. Evaluation of myocardial bridging of the left anterior descending coronary artery by 64-slice multidetector computed tomographic angiography. Am J Cardiol. 2007;100:1081-1082.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17884365?tool=bestpractice.com在有心绞痛或心肌缺血的情况下,还应考虑心肌桥(冠状动脉穿行于心肌中的通道)。如果考虑到有这种可能,也应行冠脉CT或心脏导管术,[34]Kantarci M, Doganay S, Karcaaltincaba M, et al. Clinical situations in which coronary CT angiography confers superior diagnostic information compared with coronary angiography. Diagn Interv Radiol. 2012;18:261-269.http://www.dirjournal.org/sayilar/43/buyuk/pdf_DIR_434.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22261852?tool=bestpractice.com心肌缺血可能与心肌桥、流出道梗阻或严重心肌肥厚导致心肌灌注降低有一定的关系。心肌缺血仅为预测猝死的较弱的危险因素。但是,当前的危险分层模型可能无法可靠地预测未来的猝死风险,可能还是需要在危险评分较低的 HCM 患者体内放置植入型心律转复除颤器 (ICD)。[35]Maron BJ, Casey SA, Chan RH, et al. Independent assessment of the European Society of Cardiology sudden death risk model for hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2015;116:757-764.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26183790?tool=bestpractice.com
致病基因筛查
临床应用遗传学分析有几个局限性。目前已发现的致病基因估计能够解释80%的患者,但商用的基因检测技术敏感性与实验室筛选的基因个数有关,这样就达不到80%。当筛查最常见的 8 种肌节突变时,临床灵敏度接近 60%。[15]Alcalai R, Seidman JG, Seidman CE. Genetic basis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: from bench to the clinics. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19:104-110.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17916152?tool=bestpractice.com
但是,一位患者若已知晓有明确的突变位点后,筛查其家族成员就非常有价值了。这种情况下,基因检测可以确定需要对哪些人进行持续性临床评估。[29]Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2011;124:e783-e831.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/124/24/e783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068434?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Maron BJ, Ackerman MJ, Nishimura RA, et al. Task Force 4: HCM and other cardiomyopathies, mitral valve prolapse, myocarditis, and Marfan syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1340-1345.http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1136515http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15837284?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Ho CY. Genetics and clinical destiny: improving care in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2010;122:2430-2440.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21135371?tool=bestpractice.com有确定突变的亲属应继续接受筛查,以了解 HCM 的临床发展。有些疾病可能到了成年后期才会出现明显疾病表现,因此筛查应终生进行。[38]Christiaans I, Birnie E, van Langen IM, et al. The yield of risk stratification for sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy myosin-binding protein C gene mutation carriers: focus on predictive screening. Eur Heart J. 2010;31:842-848.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/7/842.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20019025?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Michels M, Soliman OI, Phefferkorn J, et al. Disease penetrance and risk stratification for sudden cardiac death in asymptomatic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy mutation carriers. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:2593-2598.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/30/21/2593.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19666645?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Niimura H, Patton KK, McKenna WJ, et al. Sarcomere protein gene mutations in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy of the elderly. Circulation. 2002;105:446-451.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815426?tool=bestpractice.com基因检测结果为阴性的亲属可以安心了,因为他们没有致病基因突变且不需要接受进一步的筛查。
基因突变携带者很可能发展为HCM,但也有可能存在基因型-表型不一致的情况。尽管能发现基因突变,但也可表现为HCM、限制性心肌病、扩张性心肌病,或者没有明显的异常。对于那些没有表现出明显疾病表现的患者,必须考虑迟发性外显的情况。[38]Christiaans I, Birnie E, van Langen IM, et al. The yield of risk stratification for sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy myosin-binding protein C gene mutation carriers: focus on predictive screening. Eur Heart J. 2010;31:842-848.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/7/842.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20019025?tool=bestpractice.com此外,同一种基因突变的猝死风险也可低可高。[37]Ho CY. Genetics and clinical destiny: improving care in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2010;122:2430-2440.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21135371?tool=bestpractice.com
对接受基因检测的患者应提供遗传学咨询,以评估检查结果和临床意义。不管HCM患者最后能否发现基因突变,在准备生育时应接受遗传学咨询。考虑到该疾病为常染色体显性遗传以及后代筛查的重要性,遗传咨询是治疗的重要组成部分。[29]Gersh BJ, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2011;124:e783-e831.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/124/24/e783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22068434?tool=bestpractice.com