厄尔布氏麻痹及其他BPBP的诊断通常较为直接。[60]Shenaq SM, Bullocks JM, Dhillon G, et al. Management of infant brachial plexus injuries. Clin Plast Surg. 2005 Jan;32(1):79-98, ix.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15636767?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Waters PM. Update on management of pediatric brachial plexus palsy. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2005 Jul;14(4):233-44.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15931025?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Clarke HM, Curtis CG. An approach to obstetrical brachial plexus injuries. Hand Clin. 1995 Nov;11(4):563-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8567739?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Zafeiriou DI, Psychogiou K. Obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Apr;38(4):235-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18358400?tool=bestpractice.com 在排除其他病因引发的假性麻痹后,以神经检查为重点的既往史及体格检查被用于进行诊断确认。
既往史及全身体格检查
妊娠史通常存在产妇糖尿病或妊娠糖尿病或产妇肥胖。[12]Mollberg M, Hagberg H, Bager B, et al. High birthweight and shoulder dystocia: the strongest risk factors for obstetrical brachial plexus palsy in a Swedish population-based study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2005 Jul;84(7):654-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15954875?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Pundir J, Sinha P. Non-diabetic macrosomia: an obstetric dilemma. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009 Apr;29(3):200-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19358024?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Sibinski M, Synder M. Obstetric brachial plexus palsy: risk factors and predictors [in Polish]. Ortop Traumatol Rehabil. 2007 Nov-Dec;9(6):569-76.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18227748?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Gao SC, Chen L, Meng W, et al. A case-control study on the risk factors related to obstetric brachial plexus palsy [in Chinese]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi. 2005 Sep;26(9):676-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16471216?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Gosk J, Rutowski R. Analysis of risk factors for perinatal brachial plexus palsy [in Polish]. Ginekol Pol. 2005 Apr;76(4):270-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16013178?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Gudmundsson S, Henningsson AC, Lindqvist P. Correlation of birth injury with maternal height and birthweight. BJOG. 2005 Jun;112(6):764-7.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00545.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15924534?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Bar J, Dvir A, Hod M, et al. Brachial plexus injury and obstetrical risk factors. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2001 Apr;73(1):21-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11336717?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Raio L, Ghezzi F, Di Naro E, et al. Perinatal outcome of fetuses with a birth weight greater than 4500 g: an analysis of 3356 cases. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2003 Aug 15;109(2):160-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12860334?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Nassar AH, Usta IM, Khalil AM, et al. Fetal macrosomia (> or =4500 g): perinatal outcome of 231 cases according to the mode of delivery. J Perinatol. 2003 Mar;23(2):136-41.http://www.nature.com/jp/journal/v23/n2/full/7210877a.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12673264?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Lima S, Chauleur C, Varlet MN, et al. Shoulder dystocia: a ten-year descriptive study in a level-III maternity unit [in French]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil. 2009 Apr;37(4):300-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19375371?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Melendez J, Bhatia R, Callis L, et al. Severe shoulder dystocia leading to neonatal injury: a case control study. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2009 Jan;279(1):47-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18491119?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Gherman RB, Chauhan S, Ouzounian JG, et al. Shoulder dystocia: the unpreventable obstetric emergency with empiric management guidelines. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Sep;195(3):657-72.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16949396?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Gurewitsch ED, Johnson E, Hamzehzadeh S, et al. Risk factors for brachial plexus injury with and without shoulder dystocia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Feb;194(2):486-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16458651?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Allen RH. On the mechanical aspects of shoulder dystocia and birth injury. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Sep;50(3):607-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17762413?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Fadl HE, Ostlund IK, Magnuson AF, et al. Maternal and neonatal outcomes and time trends of gestational diabetes mellitus in Sweden from 1991 to 2003. Diabet Med. 2010 Apr;27(4):436-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20536516?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Al-Qattan MM, El-Sayed AA, Al-Zahrani AY, et al. Obstetric brachial plexus palsy in newborn babies of diabetic and non-diabetic mothers. J Hand Surg Eur Vol. 2010 Jun;35(5):362-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20181773?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Satpathy HK, Fleming A, Frey D, et al. Maternal obesity and pregnancy. Postgrad Med. 2008 Sep 15;120(3):E01-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18824817?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Seremak-Mrozikiewicz A, Drews K, Nowocien G, et al. Obesity in pregnant women as a problem in obstetrics [in Polish]. Ginekol Pol. 2007 Mar;78(3):234-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17650907?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Berle P, Misselwitz B, Scharlau J. Maternal risks for newborn macrosomia, incidence of a shoulder dystocia and of damages of the plexus brachialis [in German]. Z Geburtshilfe Neonatol. 2003 Jul-Aug;207(4):148-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14528418?tool=bestpractice.com 这些因素在胎儿巨大症中起到一定作用。胎儿在分娩时通常较大(>4000g)。第二产程可能存在异常,而分娩过程可能伴有肩难产。[7]Foad SL, Mehlman CT, Ying J. The epidemiology of neonatal brachial plexus palsy in the United States. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008 Jun;90(6):1258-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18519319?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Pundir J, Sinha P. Non-diabetic macrosomia: an obstetric dilemma. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2009 Apr;29(3):200-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19358024?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Lima S, Chauleur C, Varlet MN, et al. Shoulder dystocia: a ten-year descriptive study in a level-III maternity unit [in French]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil. 2009 Apr;37(4):300-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19375371?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Melendez J, Bhatia R, Callis L, et al. Severe shoulder dystocia leading to neonatal injury: a case control study. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2009 Jan;279(1):47-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18491119?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Gherman RB, Chauhan S, Ouzounian JG, et al. Shoulder dystocia: the unpreventable obstetric emergency with empiric management guidelines. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Sep;195(3):657-72.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16949396?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Gurewitsch ED, Johnson E, Hamzehzadeh S, et al. Risk factors for brachial plexus injury with and without shoulder dystocia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Feb;194(2):486-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16458651?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Allen RH. On the mechanical aspects of shoulder dystocia and birth injury. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2007 Sep;50(3):607-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17762413?tool=bestpractice.com 辅助性技术(如负压吸引或产钳)可被用于帮助分娩,儿童在分娩后可能需进行复苏。产妇可能在既往分娩中存在肩难产病史。
在生产后即刻阶段,家人通常会注意到婴儿受累手臂存在运动功能不足或无运动。 在手臂运动功能正常一段时间之后出现麻痹时应该引起婴儿是否患有BPBP的怀疑。 与脊髓至神经根撕裂有关的重度BPBP儿童可能在臂丛麻痹同侧呈现出Horner综合征的特征(瞳孔缩小、部分上睑下垂、眼球内陷及无汗症)。 呼吸急促、呼吸窘迫、喂食困难及发育不良可指示存在因膈神经损伤引发的隔膜麻痹。[64]Bowerson M, Nelson VS, Yang LJ. Diaphragmatic paralysis associated with neonatal brachial plexus palsy. Pediatr Neurol. 2010 Mar;42(3):234-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20159438?tool=bestpractice.com
应确保对儿童进行全面检查。 “头至脚趾”的评估将显示其他任何医学异常。 新生儿全面检查包括下述方面的评估:
肌与骨骼及姿势检查
上肢正常的新生儿姿势为肩部外展及外旋、肘部屈曲、前臂旋后、腕部外展、手指及拇指弯曲。 受厄尔布氏麻痹影响的儿童一侧手臂异常,肩部内旋、肘部外展、腕部屈曲、及手指屈曲(服务员索要小费的姿势)及/或手臂运动功能减弱。[60]Shenaq SM, Bullocks JM, Dhillon G, et al. Management of infant brachial plexus injuries. Clin Plast Surg. 2005 Jan;32(1):79-98, ix.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15636767?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Waters PM. Update on management of pediatric brachial plexus palsy. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2005 Jul;14(4):233-44.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15931025?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Clarke HM, Curtis CG. An approach to obstetrical brachial plexus injuries. Hand Clin. 1995 Nov;11(4):563-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8567739?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Zafeiriou DI, Psychogiou K. Obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Apr;38(4):235-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18358400?tool=bestpractice.com
对受累四肢进行仔细触诊可以显示劈啪声,通常为锁骨或肱骨(指示骨折)。 骨折需要持续2至3周的固定,从预期出现恢复开始。 任何关节任何方向都不应存在挛缩。 温和被动运动缺乏完全的关节活动度,则应针对脱臼证据进行检查(罕见)。[65]Moukoko D, Ezaki M, Wilkes D, et al. Posterior shoulder dislocation in infants with neonatal brachial plexus palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004 Apr;86-A(4):787-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15069145?tool=bestpractice.com
神经系统检查
在已经排除骨折或脱臼的情况下,应就手臂自发运动对儿童进行观察。 下述关节的任何运动缺陷都应被注意到,并与无异常一侧进行对比:
肩:针对屈曲、内旋、外旋及伸展进行观察
肘:针对屈曲及伸展进行观察
前臂:针对内旋和外旋进行观察。
腕与指关节:针对屈曲及伸展进行观察。
沿着目标肌肉的皮肤进行安抚,若肌肉仍受神经控制,则该安抚有时可刺激儿童收缩潜在的肌肉并产生运动。 由于新生儿不能按指导进行配合,因此需要耐心提供足够的时间使儿童能够在每个可能的方向自由移动手臂。
分娩后缺氧并需要复苏的儿童可能呈现出中枢神经系统功能障碍的迹象,如反射亢进、持续性原始反射、肌肉张力异常或身体姿势异常。
上肢功能及预后量化
多项评分系统已经被设计用于BPBP患者的评估与监测。 损伤神经界定及受伤或手术修复后康复监测的最常用并经验证了的系统如下。
多伦多测试评分[66]Michelow BJ, Clarke HM, Curtis CG, et al. The natural history of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994 Apr;93(4):675-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8134425?tool=bestpractice.com
主动活动量表[62]Clarke HM, Curtis CG. An approach to obstetrical brachial plexus injuries. Hand Clin. 1995 Nov;11(4):563-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8567739?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Curtis C, Stephens D, Clarke HM, et al. The active movement scale: an evaluative tool for infants with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. J Hand Surg Am. 2002 May;27(3):470-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12015722?tool=bestpractice.com
Mallet量表[68]Mallet J. Obstetrical paralysis of the brachial plexus. II. Therapeutics. Treatment of sequelae. Priority for the treatment of the shoulder. Method for the expression of results [in French]. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1972;58:Suppl 1:166-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4263979?tool=bestpractice.com
多伦多测试评分及主动活动量表更常用于新生儿中,因为它们简单地包含了对四肢自然运动的观察。 Mallet量表被用于追踪年纪较长可配合指导的患者的肩部情况。 确定基线评分为恢复过程的治疗提供指导,并可在每次随访时进行再评估。[69]Bae DS, Waters PM, Zurakowski D. Reliability of three classification systems measuring active motion in brachial plexus birth palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003 Sep;85-A(9):1733-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12954832?tool=bestpractice.com
诊断性检查
总体而言,针对厄尔布氏麻痹或其他BPBP,检查并非具有完全必要性。 胸部及受累上肢至进行放射显影检查(上肢‘婴儿全身X线检查’)可被用于确认锁骨骨折、肱骨骨折或隔膜不对称性的证据。
超声检查可被用于诊断肩部脱臼(罕见)及(疑似情况下的)隔膜麻痹。[65]Moukoko D, Ezaki M, Wilkes D, et al. Posterior shoulder dislocation in infants with neonatal brachial plexus palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004 Apr;86-A(4):787-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15069145?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Epelman M, Navarro OM, Daneman A, et al. M-mode sonography of diaphragmatic motion: description of technique and experience in 278 pediatric patients. Pediatr Radiol. 2005 Jul;35(7):661-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15776227?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Bauer AS, Lucas JF, Heyrani N, et al. Ultrasound screening for posterior shoulder dislocation in infants with persistent brachial plexus birth palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017 May 3;99(9):778-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28463922?tool=bestpractice.com该检查已被证实有助于诊断年长儿童的肩关节半脱位。使用超声检查的优点为,无需进行镇静且费用相对便宜。然而,该技术依赖于操作者,并且无法准确评估关节盂。
若有证据表明肩关节脱臼,则可进行MRI或CT扫描,但其并非用于臂丛评估。 颈椎及臂丛MRI及CT扫描无法准确诊断损伤,但可确定与神经根撕裂有关的假性脊髓膜突出。[72]Medina LS, Yaylali I, Zurakowski D, et al. Diagnostic performance of MRI and MR myelography in infants with a brachial plexus birth injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2006 Dec;36(12):1295-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17028853?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Smith AB, Gupta N, Strober J, et al. Magnetic resonance neurography in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2008 Feb;38(2):159-63.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18034234?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Tse R, Nixon JN, Iyer RS, et al. The diagnostic value of CT myelography, MR myelography, and both in neonatal brachial plexus palsy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2014 Jul;35(7):1425-32.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24676008?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Tse R, Nixon JN, Iyer RS, et al. The diagnostic value of CT myelography, MR myelography, and both in neonatal brachial plexus palsy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2014 Jul;35(7):1425-32.http://www.ajnr.org/content/35/7/1425.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24676008?tool=bestpractice.com但是,并非所有撕裂都与假性脑脊膜膨出有关。MRI 对于 5 岁以内的儿童较为适用,如果患者大于 5 岁,则首选 CT。
并非所有情况都需要肌电图(EMG)/神经传导检查。 因为新生儿(出生至4周)或婴幼儿(4周至1岁)的年龄及配合水平,无法测试随意活动,因此神经检查的诊断能力下降。[76]Pitt M, Vredeveld JW. The role of electromyography in the management of obstetric brachial plexus palsies. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;57:272-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16106625?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,尚缺乏用于比较的EMG及神经传导检查的新生儿标准。[76]Pitt M, Vredeveld JW. The role of electromyography in the management of obstetric brachial plexus palsies. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;57:272-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16106625?tool=bestpractice.com 一些报告建议,在婴儿出生后前几天,这两种评估的使用对BPBP诊断及预后预测有一定价值。[76]Pitt M, Vredeveld JW. The role of electromyography in the management of obstetric brachial plexus palsies. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;57:272-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16106625?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Kao JT, Sharma S, Curtis CG, et al. The role of the brachioradialis H reflex in the management and prognosis of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. Handchir Mikrochir Plast Chir. 2003 Mar;35(2):106-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12874721?tool=bestpractice.com 在此之后,MRI 和肌电图 (EMG)/神经传导主要作为术前评估方案的一部分,在预期外科手术(神经修复)之前实施,或者在计划二级重建手术(为了改善年龄较大患者的手臂功能)时实施。[73]Smith AB, Gupta N, Strober J, et al. Magnetic resonance neurography in children with birth-related brachial plexus injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2008 Feb;38(2):159-63.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18034234?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Pitt M, Vredeveld JW. The role of electromyography in the management of obstetric brachial plexus palsies. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;57:272-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16106625?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Gilbert A. Repair of the brachial plexus in the obstetrical lesions of the newborn [in French]. Arch Pediatr. 2008 Mar;15(3):330-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18313907?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Talbert RJ, Michaud LJ, Mehlman CT, et al. EMG and MRI are independently related to shoulder external rotation function in neonatal brachial plexus palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011 Mar;31(2):194-204.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21307715?tool=bestpractice.com