冠状动脉疾病(CAD)是糖尿病患者心血管疾病(CVD)的最常见表现。
冠状动脉疾病(心肌梗死、心绞痛和心脏衰竭)
高达30%的急性冠脉综合征患者有糖尿病。[52]Hochman JS, McCabe CH, Stone PH, et al. Outcome and profile of women and men presenting with acute coronary syndromes: a report from TIMI IIIB. TIMI Investigators. Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:141-148.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9207635?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Fleg JL, Forman DE, Berra K, et al; American Heart Association. Secondary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in older adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;128:2422-2446.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/128/22/2422.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24166575?tool=bestpractice.com在糖尿病患者的所有死亡原因中,CAD 占 75%。[54]Klein L, Gheorghiade M. Management of the patient with diabetes mellitus and myocardial infarction: clinical trials update. Am J Med. 2004;116(suppl 5A):47S-63S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15019863?tool=bestpractice.com在糖尿病患者中,心肌梗死导致的死亡率大约是未患糖尿病人群的 1.5 至 2 倍。[54]Klein L, Gheorghiade M. Management of the patient with diabetes mellitus and myocardial infarction: clinical trials update. Am J Med. 2004;116(suppl 5A):47S-63S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15019863?tool=bestpractice.com在英国前瞻性糖尿病研究中,HbA1c 每增加 1%,急性 MI 病死率的比值比是 1.17。[55]Stevens RJ, Coleman RL, Adler AI, et al. Risk factors for myocardial infarction case fatality and stroke case fatality in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 66. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:201-207.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/1/201.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14693990?tool=bestpractice.com此外,与有类似表现但无糖尿病的患者相比,已知因高风险非 ST 段抬高型心肌梗死而住院的糖尿病患者早期结局更差(包括死亡率)。[56]Giraldez RR, Clare RM, Lopes RD, et al. Prevalence and clinical outcomes of undiagnosed diabetes mellitus and prediabetes among patients with high-risk non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndrome. Am Heart J. 2013;165:918-925.e2.http://www.ahjonline.com/article/S0002-8703(13)00051-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23708162?tool=bestpractice.com活检表明,糖尿病患者和非糖尿病患者的动脉粥样硬化负担相似。[57]Goraya TY, Leibson CL, Palumbo PJ, et al. Coronary atherosclerosis in diabetes mellitus: a population-based autopsy study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:946-953.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12225721?tool=bestpractice.com管造影资料显示,糖尿病患者比非糖尿病患者更多见有弥漫、广泛、多支血管(包括左主干)和远端病变。[58]Kip KE, Faxon DP, Detre KM, et al. Coronary angioplasty in diabetic patients. Circulation. 1996;94:1818-1825.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/94/8/1818.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8873655?tool=bestpractice.com
脑血管疾病(卒中和短暂性脑缺血发作 [TIA])
糖尿病患者的脑卒中风险增加1.5~4倍。[2]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2014: estimates of diabetes and its burden in the United States. 2014. http://www.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 5 April 2016).http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-diabetes-report-web.pdf[59]Idris I, Thomson GA, Sharma JC. Diabetes mellitus and stroke. Int J Clin Pract. 2006;60:48-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16409428?tool=bestpractice.com 糖尿病能够使脑卒中复发风险加倍。糖尿病患者的脑卒中后果更差,包括住院率和长期死亡率。[59]Idris I, Thomson GA, Sharma JC. Diabetes mellitus and stroke. Int J Clin Pract. 2006;60:48-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16409428?tool=bestpractice.com糖尿病增加缺血性脑卒中的风险超过增加出血性脑卒中风险。腔隙性脑梗死常见于糖尿病患者,而且糖尿病患者更容易出现无症状性腔隙性脑梗死。然而,糖尿病患者的短暂性脑缺血发生率低于非糖尿病患者。 脑卒中风险随着血糖控制不良而上升。在英国前瞻性糖尿病研究中,HbA1c 每增加 1%,卒中病例死亡率的比值比为 1.37。[55]Stevens RJ, Coleman RL, Adler AI, et al. Risk factors for myocardial infarction case fatality and stroke case fatality in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 66. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:201-207.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/1/201.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14693990?tool=bestpractice.com
周围动脉病变
吸烟和糖尿病是外周动脉疾病(Peripheral arterial disease, PAD)的两个主要危险因素。[60]Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S, et al. Management of patients with peripheral artery disease (compilation of 2005 and 2011 ACCF/AHA Guideline Recommendations): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61:1555-1570.http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1659662http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23473760?tool=bestpractice.com在有症状的 PAD 患者中,已知 20% 患有糖尿病,然而,大多数 PAD 患者无症状。糖尿病会增加严重下肢缺血的风险。与无糖尿病的下肢 PAD 患者相比,患有糖尿病的下肢 PAD 患者更有可能接受大截肢。[61]American Diabetes Association. Peripheral arterial disease in people with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:3333-3341.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/26/12/3333.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14633825?tool=bestpractice.com
主动脉粥样硬化
当主动脉的最小前后径达到 3 cm 时,认为存在腹主动脉瘤 (Abdominal aortic aneurysm, AAA)。[60]Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S, et al. Management of patients with peripheral artery disease (compilation of 2005 and 2011 ACCF/AHA Guideline Recommendations): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61:1555-1570.http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1659662http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23473760?tool=bestpractice.com在一般人群中,AAA 患病率的范围在 7.6%(男性)到 1.3%(女性)之间。[62]Scott RA, Bridgewater SG, Ashton HA. Randomized clinical trial of screening for abdominal aortic aneurysm in women. Br J Surg. 2002;89:283-285.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.02014.x/pdf
然而,糖尿病与腹主动脉瘤风险呈负相关。[63]Lederle FA, Johnson GR, Wilson SE, et al. Prevalence and associations of abdominal aortic aneurysm detected through screening. Ann Intern Med. 1997;26:441-449.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9072929?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Golledge J, Clancy P, Jamrozik K, et al. Obesity, adipokines, and abdominal aortic aneurysm. Health in Men study. Circulation. 2007;116:2275-2279.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/116/20/2275.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17967974?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Darling RC 3rd, Brewster DC, Darling RC, et al. Are familial abdominal aortic aneurysms different? J Vasc Surg. 1989;10:39-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2787414?tool=bestpractice.com有观点认为糖尿病能降低 AAA 扩张的风险。[66]Golledge J, Karan M, Moran CS, et al. Reduced expansion rate of abdominal aortic aneurysms in patients with diabetes may be related to aberrant monocyte-matrix interactions. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:665-672.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18263873?tool=bestpractice.com
其他危险因素
已识别的众多心血管疾病危险因素中,只有少数被美国心脏协会列为主要危险因素,依据是其与心血管疾病的直接因果关系,一般人群中的高发生率,以及干预后能导致心血管疾病风险的显著下降。[67]Grundy SM, Benjamin IJ, Burke GL, et al. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 1999;100:1134-1146.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/100/10/1134.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10477542?tool=bestpractice.com除了糖尿病外,危险因素还包括吸烟、血压升高、血脂异常、高血糖、肥胖和体育运动不足。这些主要危险因素约占高风险人群变异性原因的50%,占人口心血管疾病风险升高原因的90%。[68]Smith SC Jr, Greenland P, Grundy SM. AHA Conference Proceedings. Prevention conference V: beyond secondary prevention: identifying the high-risk patient for primary prevention: executive summary. American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;101:111-116.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/101/1/111.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10618313?tool=bestpractice.com在糖尿病人群中,除了这些主要的危险因素外,男性、白蛋白尿和 C 反应蛋白水平升高与 CVD 风险增加显著相关。[45]Huxley R, Barzi F, Woodward M. Excess risk of fatal coronary heart disease associated with diabetes in men and women: meta-analysis of 37 prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2006;332:73-78.http://www.bmj.com/content/332/7533/73.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16371403?tool=bestpractice.com[46]Gerstein HC, Mann JF, Yi Q, et al. Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and heart failure in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals. JAMA. 2001;286:421-426.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=194038http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11466120?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Wachtell K, Ibsen H, Olsen MH, et al. Albuminuria and cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy: the LIFE study. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:901-906.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14644892?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Schulze MB, Rimm EB, Li T, et al. C-reactive protein and incident cardiovascular events among men with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:889-894.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/4/889.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15047644?tool=bestpractice.com糖尿病丧失了绝经前女性的心血管疾病保护优势。心血管疾病家族史也应被考虑为糖尿病性心血管疾病的危险因素。关于当前定义的代谢综合症是否能够体现任何独特的病理生理学特点,是否存在超出定义内各项因素之外的风险评估价值,仍存在争议。[69]Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, et al. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal. Joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:2289-2304.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/28/9/2289.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16123508?tool=bestpractice.com
症状
具体的心血管疾病症状应在病史中引出。
冠心病
脑血管疾病
PAD
身体检查结果
高血压
在糖尿病患者中,收缩压>140 mmHg 和/或舒张压>90 mmHg。[71]James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311:507-520.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1791497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352797?tool=bestpractice.com
急性心肌梗死或充血性心力衰竭
脑血管意外
PAD
诊断试验
冠心病
在疑似 CAD 并且症状正在发生的患者中,无创性心脏成像可以提供有用的信息。所有患者还应当测定基线血脂水平。C-反应蛋白测试不是常规测试,但也可能有助于风险分级。[48]Schulze MB, Rimm EB, Li T, et al. C-reactive protein and incident cardiovascular events among men with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:889-894.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/4/889.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15047644?tool=bestpractice.com糖化血红蛋白可用来监测血糖控制。对于患有已知疾病、既往血运重建或可能有广泛性冠脉钙化的患者,心肌灌注扫描仍是主要检测方法。[72]Berman DS, Hachamovitch R, Shaw LJ, et al. Roles of nuclear cardiology, cardiac computed tomography, and cardiac magnetic resonance: noninvasive risk stratification and a conceptual framework for the selection of noninvasive imaging tests in patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease. J Nucl Med. 2006;47:1107-1118.http://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/47/7/1107.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818945?tool=bestpractice.com
运动试验:运动试验在糖尿病患者中的预测效力尚缺乏数据,但是现有数据表明,运动 ECG 中的缺血性检查结果可预测患者的预后。[5]Grundy SM, Howard B, Smith S Jr, et al. Prevention Conference VI: Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease. Executive summary: conference proceeding for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2002;105:2231-2239.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/105/18/2231.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11994261?tool=bestpractice.com在一项涉及1282例患者的研究中(15%为糖尿病患者),有和无糖尿病的患者的运动平板试验灵敏度(47%和52%)和特异度(81%和80%)类似。[73]Lee DP, Fearon WF, Froelicher VF. Clinical utility of the exercise ECG in patients with diabetes and chest pain. Chest. 2001;119:1576-1581.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11348969?tool=bestpractice.com有症状患者,可进行运动且静息心电图存在有意义的ST段改变,应当把运动心电图检查作为第一步。[74]Gibbons RJ, Balady GJ, Bricker JT, et al. ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for exercise testing: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Exercise Testing). 2002. http://my.americanheart.org/ (last accessed 5 April 2016).http://my.americanheart.org/idc/groups/ahaecc-internal/@wcm/@sop/documents/downloadable/ucm_423807.pdf
负荷超声或核素扫描:无法进行运动的患者应进行药物负荷试验和影像学检查。[74]Gibbons RJ, Balady GJ, Bricker JT, et al. ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for exercise testing: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Exercise Testing). 2002. http://my.americanheart.org/ (last accessed 5 April 2016).http://my.americanheart.org/idc/groups/ahaecc-internal/@wcm/@sop/documents/downloadable/ucm_423807.pdf在对女性诊断 CAD 时,负荷影像学检查优于运动负荷试验。[75]Amsterdam EA, Wenger NK, Brindis RG, et al; ACC/AHA Task Force Members. 2014 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;130:e344-e426.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/130/25/e344.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25249585?tool=bestpractice.com
针对冠状动脉钙化 (coronary artery calcium, CAC) 的 CT 扫描:一些研究表明,使用≥16 层的 CT 扫描仪时,CAC 评分>400 与诱导型心肌缺血的高可能性有关,应进行进一步的检测。[76]Bax JJ, Young LH, Frye RL, et al. Screening for coronary artery disease in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:2729-2736.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/30/10/2729.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17901530?tool=bestpractice.com预先检查示冠状动脉疾病可能性小于50%的患者,0分的冠状动脉钙化评分提供了非常有力而且极为明确的证据,表明没有冠状动脉疾病。[72]Berman DS, Hachamovitch R, Shaw LJ, et al. Roles of nuclear cardiology, cardiac computed tomography, and cardiac magnetic resonance: noninvasive risk stratification and a conceptual framework for the selection of noninvasive imaging tests in patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease. J Nucl Med. 2006;47:1107-1118.http://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/47/7/1107.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818945?tool=bestpractice.com
CT 冠状动脉血管造影术 (CT coronary angiography, CTA):≥16 层的 CT 扫描仪对于大于>50% 的直径狭窄率有 90% 的灵敏度和 90% 的特异度,这是考虑血运重建的最低标准。[72]Berman DS, Hachamovitch R, Shaw LJ, et al. Roles of nuclear cardiology, cardiac computed tomography, and cardiac magnetic resonance: noninvasive risk stratification and a conceptual framework for the selection of noninvasive imaging tests in patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease. J Nucl Med. 2006;47:1107-1118.http://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/47/7/1107.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818945?tool=bestpractice.com对于以下患者来说,CT冠状动脉血管造影可能是有用的:心肌灌注扫描结果模棱两可的患者;可能有左主干或三支血管病变的患者;患有与冠状动脉疾病无关的心肌病的患者;接受心脏瓣膜手术的年轻患者。[72]Berman DS, Hachamovitch R, Shaw LJ, et al. Roles of nuclear cardiology, cardiac computed tomography, and cardiac magnetic resonance: noninvasive risk stratification and a conceptual framework for the selection of noninvasive imaging tests in patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease. J Nucl Med. 2006;47:1107-1118.http://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/47/7/1107.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818945?tool=bestpractice.com使用 CTA 在 1 型和 2 型糖尿病患者中筛查无症状性阻塞性 CAD 没有益处。[77]Muhlestein JB, Lappé DL, Lima JA, et al. Effect of screening for coronary artery disease using CT angiography on mortality and cardiac events in high-risk patients with diabetes: the FACTOR-64 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312:2234-2243.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25402757?tool=bestpractice.com
疑似脑血管意外
PAD
出现以下一种或多种情况的所有患者均应进行基线踝肱指数 (ankle-brachial index, ABI) 测定,以评估 PAD:劳累性腿部症状、伤口不愈合、年龄为 65 岁或以上、年龄为 50 岁或以上且有糖尿病或吸烟史。[60]Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S, et al. Management of patients with peripheral artery disease (compilation of 2005 and 2011 ACCF/AHA Guideline Recommendations): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61:1555-1570.http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1659662http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23473760?tool=bestpractice.com
1.0~1.4的踝肱指数是正常的。≤0.9的踝肱指数表示腿部出现了外周动脉疾病。0.91~0.99为临界状态。[60]Rooke TW, Hirsch AT, Misra S, et al. Management of patients with peripheral artery disease (compilation of 2005 and 2011 ACCF/AHA Guideline Recommendations): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61:1555-1570.http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1659662http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23473760?tool=bestpractice.com